SherbyNet - /page/wikibook/entry.mu

Micron Document

<!DOCTYPE html>

<title>Soviet space program</title>

</head>

<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Soviet space program</span></span>

</h1>

</header>

</p>

</p>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><table class="infobox"><caption class="infobox-title">Soviet space program</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader"><a href="Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>: <span lang="ru">Космическая программа СССР</span>, <small><a href="Romanization_of_Russian" title="Romanization of Russian">romanized</a>: </small><span title="Russian-language romanization"><i lang="ru-Latn">Kosmicheskaya programma SSSR</i></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div class="infobox-caption">Launch of the first successful artificial satellite, <a href="Sputnik-1" class="mw-redirect" title="Sputnik-1">Sputnik-1</a>, from <a href="R-7_Semyorka" title="R-7 Semyorka">R-7 platform</a> in 1957</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Formed</th><td class="infobox-data">1951</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Dissolved</th><td class="infobox-data">December 1, 1991<sup id="cite_ref-zavtra_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zavtra-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Manager</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="Sergei_Korolev" title="Sergei Korolev">Sergei Korolev</a> (1951–66)</li><li><a href="Vasily_Mishin" title="Vasily Mishin">Vasily Mishin</a> (1966–74)</li><li><a href="Valentin_Glushko" title="Valentin Glushko">Valentin Glushko</a> (1974–89)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Key people</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="OKB" title="OKB">Design Bureaus</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Spaceport" title="Spaceport">Primary spaceport</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="Baikonur_Cosmodrome" title="Baikonur Cosmodrome">Baikonur Cosmodrome</a></li><li><a href="Plesetsk_Cosmodrome" title="Plesetsk Cosmodrome">Plesetsk Cosmodrome</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">First flight</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Sputnik_1" title="Sputnik 1">Sputnik 1</a><br>(October 4, 1957)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">First crewed flight</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Vostok_1" title="Vostok 1">Vostok 1</a><br>(April 12, 1961)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Last crewed flight</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Soyuz_TM-13" title="Soyuz TM-13">Soyuz TM-13</a><br>(October 2, 1991)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Successes</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="#Projects_and_accomplishments">See accomplishments</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Failures</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="#Incidents,_failures,_and_setbacks">See failures below</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Partial failures</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="#Canceled_projects">See partial or cancelled projects</a><br><a href="Soviet_crewed_lunar_programs" title="Soviet crewed lunar programs">Soviet lunar program</a></td></tr></tbody></table>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series of articles on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding: 0px 5px 5px 5px">

<ul><li><a href="Soviet_crewed_lunar_programs" title="Soviet crewed lunar programs">Soviet crewed lunar programs</a></li>

<li><a href="Luna_programme" title="Luna programme">Luna program</a></li></ul></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="Human_spaceflight_programs" title="Human spaceflight programs">Human spaceflight programs</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Vostok_programme" title="Vostok programme">Vostok</a></li>

<li><a href="Voskhod_programme" title="Voskhod programme">Voskhod</a></li>

<li><a href="Soyuz_programme" title="Soyuz programme">Soyuz</a></li>

<li><a href="Salyut_programme" title="Salyut programme">Salyut</a></li>

<li><a href="Apollo%E2%80%93Soyuz" title="Apollo–Soyuz">Apollo–Soyuz</a> (joint)</li>

<li><a href="Zond_program" title="Zond program">Zond</a> (lunar Soyuz 7K-L1)</li>

<li><a href="N1-L3" class="mw-redirect" title="N1-L3">N1-L3</a> (Moon landing)</li>

<li><a href="TMK" title="TMK">TMK</a> (Mars flyby)</li>

<li><a href="Mikoyan-Gurevich_MiG-105" title="Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-105">Spiral</a></li>

<li><a href="Almaz" title="Almaz">Almaz</a> / <a href="TKS_(spacecraft)" title="TKS (spacecraft)">TKS</a></li>

<li><a href="Energia_(rocket)" title="Energia (rocket)">Energia</a> / <a href="Buran_programme" title="Buran programme">Buran</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="Space_probe" class="mw-redirect" title="Space probe">Space probes</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Sputnik_program" class="mw-redirect" title="Sputnik program">Sputnik program</a></li>

<li><a href="Kosmos_(satellite)" title="Kosmos (satellite)">Kosmos</a></li>

<li><a href="GLONASS" title="GLONASS">GLONASS</a></li>

<li><a href="Molniya_(satellite)" title="Molniya (satellite)">Molniya</a></li>

<li><a href="Meteor_(satellite)" title="Meteor (satellite)">Meteor</a></li>

<li><a href="Zenit_(satellite)" title="Zenit (satellite)">Zenit</a></li>

<li><a href="Luna_programme" title="Luna programme">Luna program</a></li>

<li><a href="Zond_program" title="Zond program">Zond program</a></li>

<li><a href="Lunokhod_programme" title="Lunokhod programme">Lunokhod program</a></li>

<li><a href="Mars_program" title="Mars program">Mars program</a></li>

<li><a href="Phobos_program" title="Phobos program">Phobos program</a></li>

<li><a href="Mars_1M" title="Mars 1M">Marsnik program</a></li>

<li><a href="Astron_(spacecraft)" title="Astron (spacecraft)">Astron (spacecraft)</a></li>

<li><a href="Orion_1_and_Orion_2_Space_Observatories" class="mw-redirect" title="Orion 1 and Orion 2 Space Observatories">Orion 1 and Orion 2 Space Observatories</a></li>

<li><a href="RELIKT-1" title="RELIKT-1">RELIKT-1</a></li>

<li><a href="Venera" title="Venera">Venera</a></li>

<li><a href="Vega_program" title="Vega program">Vega program</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="Expendable_launch_vehicle" class="mw-redirect" title="Expendable launch vehicle">Expendable launch vehicles</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Kosmos-3M" title="Kosmos-3M">Kosmos-3M</a></li>

<li><a href="Molniya-M" title="Molniya-M">Molniya-M</a></li>

<li><a href="Proton_(rocket_family)" title="Proton (rocket family)">Proton</a>

<li><a href="Soyuz_(rocket_family)" title="Soyuz (rocket family)">Soyuz</a>

<li><a href="Zenit_(rocket_family)" title="Zenit (rocket family)">Zenit</a>

<li><a href="Energia_(rocket)" title="Energia (rocket)">Energia</a></li>

<li><a href="Kosmos_(rocket_family)" title="Kosmos (rocket family)">Kosmos</a>

<li><a href="Molniya_(rocket)" title="Molniya (rocket)">Molniya</a></li>

<li><a href="Polyot_(rocket)" title="Polyot (rocket)">Polyot</a></li>

<li><a href="Soyuz_(rocket)" title="Soyuz (rocket)">Soyuz</a>

<li><a href="Soyuz/Vostok" title="Soyuz/Vostok">Soyuz/Vostok</a></li>

<li><a href="Sputnik_(rocket)" title="Sputnik (rocket)">Sputnik</a></li>

<li><a href="Voskhod_(rocket)" title="Voskhod (rocket)">Voskhod</a></li>

<li><a href="Vostok_(rocket_family)" title="Vostok (rocket family)">Vostok</a>

<li><a href="Tsyklon" title="Tsyklon">Tsyklon</a>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Notable figures</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Konstantin_Tsiolkovsky" title="Konstantin Tsiolkovsky">Konstantin Tsiolkovsky</a></li>

<li><a href="Friedrich_Zander" title="Friedrich Zander">Friedrich Zander</a></li>

<li><a href="Mstislav_Keldysh" title="Mstislav Keldysh">Mstislav Keldysh</a></li>

<li><a href="Sergei_Korolev" title="Sergei Korolev">Sergei Korolev</a></li>

<li><a href="Laika" title="Laika">Laika</a></li>

<li><a href="Yuri_Gagarin" title="Yuri Gagarin">Yuri Gagarin</a></li>

<li><a href="Alexander_Kemurdzhian" title="Alexander Kemurdzhian">Alexander Kemurdzhian</a></li>

<li><a href="Valentina_Tereshkova" title="Valentina Tereshkova">Valentina Tereshkova</a></li>

<li><a href="Alexei_Leonov" title="Alexei Leonov">Alexei Leonov</a></li>

<li><a href="Konstantin_Feoktistov" title="Konstantin Feoktistov">Konstantin Feoktistov</a></li>

<li><a href="Mikhail_Tikhonravov" title="Mikhail Tikhonravov">Mikhail Tikhonravov</a></li>

<li><a href="Mikhail_Yangel" title="Mikhail Yangel">Mikhail Yangel</a></li>

<li><a href="Valentin_Glushko" title="Valentin Glushko">Valentin Glushko</a></li>

<li><a href="Vladimir_Chelomey" title="Vladimir Chelomey">Vladimir Chelomey</a></li>

<li><a href="Kerim_Kerimov" title="Kerim Kerimov">Kerim Kerimov</a></li>

<li><a href="Vasily_Mishin" title="Vasily Mishin">Vasily Mishin</a></li>

<li><a href="Boris_Chertok" title="Boris Chertok">Boris Chertok</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="Cosmonauts" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmonauts">Cosmonauts</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="List_of_cosmonauts" title="List of cosmonauts">List of Soviet and Russian cosmonauts</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style></td></tr></tbody></table>

<p>The <b>Soviet space program</b><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (<a href="Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>: <span lang="ru">Космическая программа СССР</span>, <small><a href="Romanization_of_Russian" title="Romanization of Russian">romanized</a>: </small><span title="Russian-language romanization"><i lang="ru-Latn">Kosmicheskaya programma SSSR</i></span>) was the state <a href="Space_program" class="mw-redirect" title="Space program">space program</a> of the <a href="Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>, active from 1951 until the <a href="Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">dissolution of the Soviet Union</a> in 1991.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Contrary to its competitors (<a href="NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a> in the United States, the <a href="European_Space_Agency" title="European Space Agency">European Space Agency</a> in Western Europe, and the <a href="Ministry_of_Aerospace_Industry" title="Ministry of Aerospace Industry">Ministry of Aerospace Industry</a> in China), which had their programs run under single coordinating agencies, the Soviet space program was divided between several internally competing <a href="OKB" title="OKB">design bureaus</a> led by <a href="Sergei_Korolev" title="Sergei Korolev">Korolev</a>, <a href="Kerim_Kerimov" title="Kerim Kerimov">Kerimov</a>, <a href="Mstislav_Keldysh" title="Mstislav Keldysh">Keldysh</a>, <a href="Mikhail_Yangel" title="Mikhail Yangel">Yangel</a>, <a href="Valentin_Glushko" title="Valentin Glushko">Glushko</a>, <a href="Vladimir_Chelomey" title="Vladimir Chelomey">Chelomey</a>, <a href="Viktor_Makeyev" title="Viktor Makeyev">Makeyev</a>, <a href="Boris_Chertok" title="Boris Chertok">Chertok</a> and <a href="Information_Satellite_Systems_Reshetnev" title="Information Satellite Systems Reshetnev">Reshetnev</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several of these bureaus were subordinated to the <a href="Ministry_of_General_Machine-Building" title="Ministry of General Machine-Building">Ministry of General Machine-Building</a>. The Soviet space program served as an important marker of claims by the Soviet Union to its <a href="Superpower" title="Superpower">superpower</a> status.<sup id="cite_ref-University_of_Pittsburgh_Press,_Siddiqi_&_Andrews,_2011_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-University_of_Pittsburgh_Press,_Siddiqi_&_Andrews,_2011-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 1">: 1 </span></sup>

</p><p><a href="Soviet_rocketry" title="Soviet rocketry">Soviet investigations into rocketry</a> began with the formation of the <a href="Gas_Dynamics_Laboratory" title="Gas Dynamics Laboratory">Gas Dynamics Laboratory</a> in 1921, and these endeavors expanded during the 1930s and 1940s.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChertok20059–10,_164–165_Vol_1_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChertok20059–10,_164–165_Vol_1-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESiddiqi20006–14_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESiddiqi20006–14-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the years following <a href="World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, both the Soviet and <a href="United_States_space_program" class="mw-redirect" title="United States space program">United States space programs</a> utilised German technology in their early efforts at space programs. In the 1950s, the Soviet program was formalized under the management of <a href="Sergei_Korolev" title="Sergei Korolev">Sergei Korolev</a>, who led the program based on unique concepts derived from <a href="Konstantin_Tsiolkovsky" title="Konstantin Tsiolkovsky">Konstantin Tsiolkovsky</a>, sometimes known as the father of theoretical <a href="Astronautics" title="Astronautics">astronautics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Competing in the <a href="Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a> <a href="NASA" title="NASA">with the United States</a> and later <a href="European_Space_Agency" title="European Space Agency">with the European Union</a> and <a href="Ministry_of_Aerospace_Industry" title="Ministry of Aerospace Industry">with China</a>, the Soviet space program was notable in setting many records in space exploration, including the first intercontinental missile (<a href="R-7_Semyorka" title="R-7 Semyorka">R-7 Semyorka</a>) that launched the first satellite (<a href="Sputnik_1" title="Sputnik 1">Sputnik 1</a>) and sent the first animal (<a href="Laika" title="Laika">Laika</a>) into <a href="Geocentric_orbit" title="Geocentric orbit">Earth orbit</a> in 1957, and placed the first human in space in 1961, <a href="Yuri_Gagarin" title="Yuri Gagarin">Yuri Gagarin</a>. In addition, the Soviet program also saw the first woman in space, <a href="Valentina_Tereshkova" title="Valentina Tereshkova">Valentina Tereshkova</a>, in 1963 and the <a href="List_of_spacewalks_and_moonwalks_1965%E2%80%931999" title="List of spacewalks and moonwalks 1965–1999">first spacewalk</a> in 1965. Other milestones included <a href="Cybernetics_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Cybernetics in the Soviet Union">computerized robotic</a> missions <a href="Luna_programme" title="Luna programme">exploring the Moon</a> starting in 1959: being the first to <a href="Moon_landing" title="Moon landing">reach the surface of the Moon</a>, recording the first image of the <a href="Far_side_of_the_Moon" title="Far side of the Moon">far side of the Moon</a>, and achieving the first soft landing on the Moon. The Soviet program also achieved the first space rover deployment with the <a href="Lunokhod_programme" title="Lunokhod programme">Lunokhod programme</a> in 1966, and sent the first robotic probe that automatically extracted a sample of <a href="Lunar_soil" class="mw-redirect" title="Lunar soil">lunar soil</a> and brought it to Earth in 1970, <a href="Luna_16" title="Luna 16">Luna 16</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Soviet program was also responsible for leading the first <a href="Interplanetary_probe" class="mw-redirect" title="Interplanetary probe">interplanetary probes</a> to <a href="Venera" title="Venera">Venus</a> and <a href="Mars_program" title="Mars program">Mars</a> and made successful soft landings on these planets in the 1960s and 1970s.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It put the first <a href="Space_station" title="Space station">space station</a>, <a href="Salyut_1" title="Salyut 1">Salyut 1</a>, into <a href="Low_Earth_orbit" title="Low Earth orbit">low Earth orbit</a> in 1971, and the first modular space station, <a href="Mir" title="Mir">Mir</a>, in 1986.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its <a href="Interkosmos" title="Interkosmos">Interkosmos</a> program was also notable for sending the first citizen of a country other than the United States or Soviet Union into space.<sup id="cite_ref-Sheehan_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sheehan-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Burgess_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burgess-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The primary spaceport, <a href="Baikonur_Cosmodrome" title="Baikonur Cosmodrome">Baikonur Cosmodrome</a>, is now in <a href="Kazakhstan" title="Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a>, which leases the facility to Russia.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origins">Origins</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_Russian-Soviet_efforts">Early Russian-Soviet efforts</h3></div>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="Soviet_rocketry" title="Soviet rocketry">Soviet rocketry</a></div>

<p>The theory of <a href="Space_exploration" title="Space exploration">space exploration</a> had a solid basis in the <a href="Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a> before the <a href="First_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First World War">First World War</a> with the writings of the Russian and Soviet rocket scientist <a href="Konstantin_Tsiolkovsky" title="Konstantin Tsiolkovsky">Konstantin Tsiolkovsky</a> (1857–1935), who published pioneering papers in the late 19th and early 20th centuries on <a href="Astronautics" title="Astronautics">astronautic theory</a>, including calculating the <a href="Rocket_equation" class="mw-redirect" title="Rocket equation">Rocket equation</a> and in 1929 introduced the concept of the <a href="Multistaged_rocket" class="mw-redirect" title="Multistaged rocket">multistaged rocket</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESiddiqi20001–2_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESiddiqi20001–2-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBakerZak20133_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBakerZak20133-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additional astronautic and <a href="Spaceflight" title="Spaceflight">spaceflight</a> theory was also provided by the Ukrainian and Soviet engineer and mathematician <a href="Yuri_Kondratyuk" title="Yuri Kondratyuk">Yuri Kondratyuk</a> who developed the first known <a href="Lunar_orbit_rendezvous" title="Lunar orbit rendezvous">lunar orbit rendezvous</a> (LOR), a key concept for landing and return spaceflight from Earth to the <a href="Moon" title="Moon">Moon</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The LOR was later used for the plotting of the first actual <a href="Apollo_11" title="Apollo 11">human spaceflight to the Moon</a>. Many other aspects of spaceflight and <a href="Space_exploration" title="Space exploration">space exploration</a> are covered in his works.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESiddiqi20002_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESiddiqi20002-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both theoretical and practical aspects of spaceflight was also provided by the Latvian pioneer of <a href="Rocket" title="Rocket">rocketry</a> and <a href="Spaceflight" title="Spaceflight">spaceflight</a> <a href="Friedrich_Zander" title="Friedrich Zander">Friedrich Zander</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESiddiqi20003_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESiddiqi20003-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> including suggesting in a 1925 paper that a spacecraft traveling between two planets could be accelerated at the beginning of its trajectory and decelerated at the end of its trajectory by using the gravity of the two planets' moons – a method known as <a href="Gravity_assist" title="Gravity assist">gravity assist</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Gas_Dynamics_Laboratory_(GDL)">Gas Dynamics Laboratory (GDL)</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Gas_Dynamics_Laboratory" title="Gas Dynamics Laboratory">Gas Dynamics Laboratory</a></div>

<p>The first Soviet development of rockets was in 1921, when the Soviet military sanctioned the commencement of a small research laboratory to explore <a href="Solid-fuel_rocket" class="mw-redirect" title="Solid-fuel rocket">solid fuel rockets</a>, led by <a href="Nikolai_Tikhomirov_(chemical_engineer)" title="Nikolai Tikhomirov (chemical engineer)">Nikolai Tikhomirov</a>, a chemical engineer, and supported by <a href="Vladimir_Artemyev" title="Vladimir Artemyev">Vladimir Artemyev</a>, a Soviet engineer.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESiddiqi20006_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESiddiqi20006-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChertok2005164_Vol_1_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChertok2005164_Vol_1-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tikhomirov had commenced studying solid and <a href="Liquid-fueled_rocket" class="mw-redirect" title="Liquid-fueled rocket">Liquid-fueled rockets</a> in 1894, and in 1915, he lodged a patent for "self-propelled aerial and water-surface mines."<sup id="cite_ref-RSB_GDL_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RSB_GDL-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1928 the laboratory was renamed the <a href="Gas_Dynamics_Laboratory" title="Gas Dynamics Laboratory">Gas Dynamics Laboratory</a> (GDL).<sup id="cite_ref-W&WRRP_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W&WRRP-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The First test-firing of a solid fuel rocket was carried out in March 1928, which flew for about 1,300 meters<sup id="cite_ref-RSB_GDL_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RSB_GDL-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further developments in the early 1930s were led by <a href="Georgy_Langemak" title="Georgy Langemak">Georgy Langemak</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESiddiqi200017_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESiddiqi200017-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and 1932 in-air test firings of <a href="RS-82_(rocket_family)" title="RS-82 (rocket family)">RS-82</a> unguided rockets from an <a href="Tupolev_I-4" title="Tupolev I-4">Tupolev I-4</a> aircraft armed with six launchers successfully took place.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChertok2005165_Vol_1_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChertok2005165_Vol_1-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sergey_Korolev">Sergey Korolev</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Sergey_Korolev" class="mw-redirect" title="Sergey Korolev">Sergey Korolev</a></div>

<p>A key contributor to early soviet efforts came from a young Russian aircraft engineer <a href="Sergey_Korolev" class="mw-redirect" title="Sergey Korolev">Sergey Korolev</a>, who would later become the de facto head of the Soviet space programme.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESiddiqi20004_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESiddiqi20004-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

In 1926, as an advanced student, Korolev was mentored by the famous Soviet aircraft designer <a href="Andrey_Tupolev" class="mw-redirect" title="Andrey Tupolev">Andrey Tupolev</a>, who was a professor at his University.<sup id="cite_ref-Eng060121_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eng060121-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1930, while working as a lead engineer on the <a href="Tupolev_TB-3" title="Tupolev TB-3">Tupolev TB-3</a> heavy bomber he became interested in the possibilities of liquid-fueled rocket engines to propel airplanes. This led to contact with Zander, and sparked his interest in space exploration and rocketry.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESiddiqi20004_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESiddiqi20004-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Group_for_the_Study_of_Reactive_Motion_(GIRD)">Group for the Study of Reactive Motion (GIRD)</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Group_for_the_Study_of_Reactive_Motion" title="Group for the Study of Reactive Motion">Group for the Study of Reactive Motion</a></div>

<p>Practical aspects built on early experiments carried out by members of the 'Group for the Study of Reactive Motion' (better known by its Russian acronym "<a href="GIRD" class="mw-redirect" title="GIRD">GIRD</a>") in the 1930s, where Zander, Korolev and other pioneers such as the Russian engineers <a href="Mikhail_Tikhonravov" title="Mikhail Tikhonravov">Mikhail Tikhonravov</a>, <a href="Leonid_Dushkin" title="Leonid Dushkin">Leonid Dushkin</a>, <a href="Vladimir_Vetchinkin" title="Vladimir Vetchinkin">Vladimir Vetchinkin</a> and Yuriy Pobedonostsev worked together.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESiddiqi20004–5_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESiddiqi20004–5-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBakerZak20136_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBakerZak20136-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChertok2005166_Vol_1_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChertok2005166_Vol_1-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On August 18, 1933, the Leningrad branch of GIRD, led by Tikhonravov,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBakerZak20136_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBakerZak20136-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> launched the first <a href="Hybrid-propellant_rocket" title="Hybrid-propellant rocket">hybrid propellant rocket</a>, the <a href="Group_for_the_Study_of_Reactive_Motion#GIRD-9" title="Group for the Study of Reactive Motion">GIRD-09</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and on November 25, 1933, the Soviet's first liquid-fueled rocket <a href="GIRD-X" class="mw-redirect" title="GIRD-X">GIRD-X</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Reactive_Scientific_Research_Institute_(RNII)">Reactive Scientific Research Institute (RNII)</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Reactive_Scientific_Research_Institute" title="Reactive Scientific Research Institute">Reactive Scientific Research Institute</a></div>

<p>In 1933 GIRD was merged with GDL<sup id="cite_ref-RSB_GDL_30-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RSB_GDL-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> by the Soviet government to form the <a href="Reactive_Scientific_Research_Institute" title="Reactive Scientific Research Institute">Reactive Scientific Research Institute</a> (RNII),<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBakerZak20136_37-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBakerZak20136-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which brought together the best of the Soviet rocket talent, including Korolev, Langemak, <a href="Ivan_Kleymyonov" title="Ivan Kleymyonov">Ivan Kleymyonov</a> and former GDL engine designer <a href="Valentin_Glushko" title="Valentin Glushko">Valentin Glushko</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESiddiqi20007–8_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESiddiqi20007–8-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBakerZak20139_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBakerZak20139-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Early success of RNII included the conception in 1936 and first flight in 1941 of the <a href="Korolyov_RP-318" title="Korolyov RP-318">RP-318</a> the Soviets first <a href="Korolyov_RP-318" title="Korolyov RP-318">rocket-powered aircraft</a> and the <a href="RS-82_(rocket_family)" title="RS-82 (rocket family)">RS-82 and RS-132 missiles</a> entered service by 1937,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChertok2005167_vol_1_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChertok2005167_vol_1-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which became the basis for development in 1938 and serial production from 1940 to 1941 of the <a href="Katyusha_rocket_launcher" title="Katyusha rocket launcher">Katyusha multiple rocket launcher</a>, another advance in the reactive propulsion field.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESiddiqi20009_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESiddiqi20009-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> RNII's research and development were very important for later achievements of the Soviet rocket and space programs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESiddiqi20009_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESiddiqi20009-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChertok2005164_Vol_1_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChertok2005164_Vol_1-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>During the 1930s, Soviet rocket technology was comparable to Germany's,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChertok2005167–168_Vol_1_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChertok2005167–168_Vol_1-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but <a href="Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a>'s <a href="Great_Purge" title="Great Purge">Great Purge</a> severely damaged its progress. In November 1937, Kleymyonov and Langemak were arrested and later executed, Glushko and many other leading engineers were imprisoned in the <a href="Gulag" title="Gulag">Gulag</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESiddiqi200010–11_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESiddiqi200010–11-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Korolev was arrested in June 1938 and sent to a <a href="Sevvostlag" title="Sevvostlag">forced labour camp in Kolyma</a> in June 1939. However, due to intervention by Tupolev, he was relocated to a <a href="Sharashka" title="Sharashka">prison for scientists and engineers</a> in September 1940.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESiddiqi200011–14_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESiddiqi200011–14-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="World_War_II">World War II</h3></div>

<p>During World War II rocketry efforts were carried out by three Soviet <a href="OKB" title="OKB">design bureaus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESiddiqi200022_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESiddiqi200022-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> RNII continued to develop and improve solid fuel rockets, including the RS-82 and RS-132 missiles and the Katyusha rocket launcher,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESiddiqi200017_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESiddiqi200017-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> where Pobedonostsev and Tikhonravov continued to work on rocket design.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChertok2005207_Vol_1_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChertok2005207_Vol_1-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1944, RNII was renamed Scientific Research Institute No 1 (NII-I) and combined with design bureau OKB-293, led by Soviet engineer <a href="Viktor_Bolkhovitinov" title="Viktor Bolkhovitinov">Viktor Bolkhovitinov</a>, which developed, with <a href="Aleksei_Isaev" title="Aleksei Isaev">Aleksei Isaev</a>, <a href="Boris_Chertok" title="Boris Chertok">Boris Chertok</a>, <a href="Leonid_Voskresensky" title="Leonid Voskresensky">Leonid Voskresensky</a> and <a href="Nikolay_Pilyugin" title="Nikolay Pilyugin">Nikolay Pilyugin</a> a short-range rocket powered interceptor called <a href="Bereznyak-Isayev_BI-1" title="Bereznyak-Isayev BI-1">Bereznyak-Isayev BI-1</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChertok2005174,_207_Vol_1_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChertok2005174,_207_Vol_1-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<p>Special Design Bureau for Special Engines (OKB-SD) was led by Glushko and focused on developing auxiliary <a href="Liquid_rocket" class="mw-redirect" title="Liquid rocket">liquid-fueled rocket engines</a> to <a href="JATO" title="JATO">assist takeoff</a> and climbing of prop aircraft, including the RD-IKhZ, RD-2 and RD-3.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESiddiqi200015_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESiddiqi200015-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1944, the RD-1 kHz auxiliary rocket motor was tested in a fast-climb <a href="La-7" class="mw-redirect" title="La-7">Lavochkin La-7R</a> for protection of the capital from high-altitude <i>Luftwaffe</i> attacks.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1942 Korolev was transferred to OKB-SD, where he proposed development of the long range missiles D-1 and D-2.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESiddiqi200015–17_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESiddiqi200015–17-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The third design bureau was <a href="NPO_Mashinostroyeniya" title="NPO Mashinostroyeniya">Plant No 51 (OKB-51)</a>, led by Soviet Ukrainian Engineer <a href="Vladimir_Chelomey" title="Vladimir Chelomey">Vladimir Chelomey</a>, where he created the first Soviet <a href="Pulse_jet_engine" class="mw-redirect" title="Pulse jet engine">pulsating air jet</a> engine in 1942, independently of similar contemporary developments in <a href="Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESiddiqi200021–22_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESiddiqi200021–22-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="German_influence">German influence</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="German_influence_on_Soviet_rocketry" title="German influence on Soviet rocketry">German influence on Soviet rocketry</a></div>

<p>During World War II, Nazi Germany developed rocket technology that was more advanced than the <a href="Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allies</a> and a race commenced between the <a href="Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> and the United States to capture and exploit the technology. Soviet rocket specialist was sent to Germany in 1945 to obtain <a href="V-2_rocket" title="V-2 rocket">V-2 rockets</a> and worked with German specialists in Germany and later in the Soviet Union to understand and replicate the rocket technology.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChertok2005215–369_Vol_1_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChertok2005215–369_Vol_1-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChertok200543–71_Vol_2_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChertok200543–71_Vol_2-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESiddiqi200024–82_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESiddiqi200024–82-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The involvement of German scientists and engineers was an essential catalyst to early Soviet efforts. In 1945 and 1946 the use of German expertise was invaluable in reducing the time needed to master the intricacies of the V-2 rocket, establishing production of the <a href="R-1_rocket" class="mw-redirect" title="R-1 rocket">R-1 rocket</a> and enable a base for further developments. On 22 October 1946, 302 German rocket scientists and engineers, including 198 from the Zentralwerke (a total of 495 persons including family members), were deported to the Soviet Union as part of <a href="Operation_Osoaviakhim" title="Operation Osoaviakhim">Operation Osoaviakhim</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESiddiqi200037–42_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESiddiqi200037–42-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, after 1947 the Soviets made very little use of German specialists and their influence on the future Soviet rocket program was marginal.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESiddiqi200040,_63,_83–84_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESiddiqi200040,_63,_83–84-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sputnik_and_Vostok">Sputnik and Vostok</h2></div>

<p>The Soviet space program was tied to the USSR's <a href="Five-Year_Plan_(USSR)" class="mw-redirect" title="Five-Year Plan (USSR)">Five-Year Plans</a> and from the start was reliant on support from the Soviet military. Although he was "single-mindedly driven by the dream of space travel", Korolev generally kept this a secret while working on military projects—especially, after the Soviet Union's <a href="RDS-1" title="RDS-1">first atomic bomb test</a> in 1949, a missile capable of carrying a nuclear warhead to the United States—as many mocked the idea of launching satellites and crewed spacecraft. Nonetheless, the first Soviet rocket with animals aboard launched in July 1951; the two dogs, <a href="Dezik_and_Tsygan" title="Dezik and Tsygan">Dezik and Tsygan</a>, were recovered alive after reaching 101 km in altitude. Two months ahead of America's first such achievement, this and subsequent flights gave the Soviets valuable experience with <a href="Space_medicine" title="Space medicine">space medicine</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-siddiqi2000_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-siddiqi2000-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 84–88, 95–96, 118">: 84–88, 95–96, 118 </span></sup>

</p><p>Because of its global range and large payload of approximately five tons, the reliable R-7 was not only effective as a strategic delivery system for nuclear warheads, but also as an excellent basis for a space vehicle. The United States' announcement in July 1955 of its plan to launch a satellite during the <a href="International_Geophysical_Year" title="International Geophysical Year">International Geophysical Year</a> greatly benefited Korolev in persuading Soviet leader <a href="Nikita_Khrushchev" title="Nikita Khrushchev">Nikita Khrushchev</a> to support his plans. <sup id="cite_ref-siddiqi2000_66-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-siddiqi2000-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 148–151">: 148–151 </span></sup> In a letter addressed to Khrushchev, Korolev stressed the necessity of launching a "simple satellite" in order to compete with the American space effort.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Plans were approved for Earth-orbiting satellites (<i><a href="Sputnik" class="mw-redirect" title="Sputnik">Sputnik</a></i>) to gain knowledge of space, and four uncrewed military reconnaissance satellites, <a href="Zenit_(satellite)" title="Zenit (satellite)">Zenit</a>. Further planned developments called for a crewed <a href="Geocentric_orbit" title="Geocentric orbit">Earth orbit</a> flight by and an uncrewed lunar mission at an earlier date.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<p>After the first Sputnik proved to be successful, Korolev—then known publicly only as the anonymous "Chief Designer of Rocket-Space Systems"<sup id="cite_ref-siddiqi2000_66-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-siddiqi2000-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 168–169">: 168–169 </span></sup>—was charged to accelerate the crewed program, the design of which was combined with the Zenit program to produce the <a href="Vostok_spacecraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Vostok spacecraft">Vostok spacecraft</a>. After Sputnik, Soviet scientists and program leaders envisioned establishing a crewed station to study the effects of zero-gravity and the long term effects on lifeforms in a space environment.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Still influenced by Tsiolkovsky—who had chosen Mars as the most important goal for space travel—in the early 1960s, the Soviet program under Korolev created substantial plans for crewed trips to Mars as early as 1968 to 1970. With <a href="Controlled_Ecological_Life_Support_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Controlled Ecological Life Support System">closed-loop life support systems</a> and electrical rocket engines, and launched from large orbiting space stations, these plans were much more ambitious than America's goal of <a href="Project_Apollo" class="mw-redirect" title="Project Apollo">landing on the Moon</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-siddiqi2000_66-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-siddiqi2000-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 333–337">: 333–337 </span></sup>

</p><p>In late 1963 and early 1964 the Polyot 1 and Polyot 2 satellites were launched, these were the first satellites capable of adjusting both <a href="Orbital_inclination" title="Orbital inclination">orbital inclination</a> and <a href="Apsis" title="Apsis">Apsis</a>. This marked a significant step in the potential use of spacecraft in <a href="Anti-satellite_weapon" title="Anti-satellite weapon">Anti-satellite</a> warfare, as it demonstrated the potential to eventually for uncrewed satellites to intercept and destroy other satellites. This would have highlighted the potential use of the space program in a conflict with the US.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Funding_and_support">Funding and support</h3></div>

<p>The Soviet space program was secondary in military funding to the <a href="Strategic_Rocket_Forces" title="Strategic Rocket Forces">Strategic Rocket Forces</a>' ICBMs. While the West believed that Khrushchev personally ordered each new space mission for propaganda purposes, and the Soviet leader did have an unusually close relationship with Korolev and other chief designers, Khrushchev emphasized missiles rather than space exploration and was not very interested in competing with Apollo.<sup id="cite_ref-siddiqi2000_66-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-siddiqi2000-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 351, 408, 426–427">: 351, 408, 426–427 </span></sup>

</p><p>While the government and the Communist Party used the program's successes as propaganda tools after they occurred, systematic plans for missions based on political reasons were rare, one exception being <a href="Valentina_Tereshkova" title="Valentina Tereshkova">Valentina Tereshkova</a>, the first woman in space, on <a href="Vostok_6" title="Vostok 6">Vostok 6</a> in 1963.<sup id="cite_ref-siddiqi2000_66-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-siddiqi2000-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 351">: 351 </span></sup> Missions were planned based on rocket availability or ad hoc reasons, rather than scientific purposes. For example, the government in February 1962 abruptly ordered an ambitious mission involving two Vostoks simultaneously in orbit launched "in ten days time" to eclipse <a href="John_Glenn" title="John Glenn">John Glenn</a>'s <a href="Mercury-Atlas_6" title="Mercury-Atlas 6">Mercury-Atlas 6</a> that month; the program could not do so until August, with <a href="Vostok_3" class="mw-redirect" title="Vostok 3">Vostok 3</a> and <a href="Vostok_4" class="mw-redirect" title="Vostok 4">Vostok 4</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-siddiqi2000_66-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-siddiqi2000-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 354–361">: 354–361 </span></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Internal_competition">Internal competition</h2></div>

<p>Unlike the American space program, which had NASA as a single coordinating structure directed by its administrator, <a href="James_E._Webb" title="James E. Webb">James Webb</a> through most of the 1960s, the USSR's program was split between several competing design groups. Despite the successes of the <a href="Sputnik_program" class="mw-redirect" title="Sputnik program">Sputnik Program</a> between 1957 and 1961 and <a href="Vostok_programme" title="Vostok programme">Vostok Program</a> between 1961 and 1964, after 1958 Korolev's OKB-1 design bureau faced increasing competition from his rival chief designers, <a href="Mikhail_Yangel" title="Mikhail Yangel">Mikhail Yangel</a>, <a href="Valentin_Glushko" title="Valentin Glushko">Valentin Glushko</a>, and <a href="Vladimir_Chelomei" class="mw-redirect" title="Vladimir Chelomei">Vladimir Chelomei</a>. Korolev planned to move forward with the <a href="Soyuz_spacecraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Soyuz spacecraft">Soyuz</a> craft and <a href="N1_rocket" class="mw-redirect" title="N1 rocket">N-1</a> heavy booster that would be the basis of a permanent crewed space station and crewed exploration of the <a href="Moon" title="Moon">Moon</a>. However, <a href="Dmitry_Ustinov" title="Dmitry Ustinov">Dmitry Ustinov</a> directed him to focus on near-Earth missions using the <a href="Voskhod_spacecraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Voskhod spacecraft">Voskhod spacecraft</a>, a modified Vostok, as well as on uncrewed missions to nearby planets <a href="Venus" title="Venus">Venus</a> and <a href="Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a>.

</p><p>Yangel had been Korolev's assistant but with the support of the military, he was given his own design bureau in 1954 to work primarily on the military space program. This had the stronger rocket engine design team including the use of <a href="Hypergolic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypergolic">hypergolic</a> fuels but following the <a href="Nedelin_catastrophe" title="Nedelin catastrophe">Nedelin catastrophe</a> in 1960 Yangel was directed to concentrate on ICBM development. He also continued to develop his own heavy booster designs similar to Korolev's N-1 both for military applications and for cargo flights into space to build future space stations.

</p><p>Glushko was the chief rocket engine designer but he had a personal friction with Korolev and refused to develop the large single chamber cryogenic engines that Korolev needed to build heavy boosters.

</p><p>Chelomey benefited from the patronage of Khrushchev<sup id="cite_ref-siddiqi2000_66-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-siddiqi2000-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 418">: 418 </span></sup> and in 1960 was given the plum job of developing a rocket to send a crewed vehicle around the Moon and a crewed military space station. With limited space experience, his development was slow.

</p><p>The progress of the Apollo program alarmed the chief designers, who each advocated for his own program as the response. Multiple, overlapping designs received approval, and new proposals threatened already approved projects. Due to Korolev's "singular persistence", in August 1964—more than three years after the United States declared its intentions—the Soviet Union finally decided to compete for the Moon. It set the goal of a lunar landing in 1967—the 50th anniversary of the <a href="October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">October Revolution</a>—or 1968.<sup id="cite_ref-siddiqi2000_66-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-siddiqi2000-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 406–408, 420">: 406–408, 420 </span></sup> At one stage in the early 1960s the Soviet space program was actively developing multiple launchers and spacecraft. With the fall of Krushchev in 1964, Korolev was given complete control of the crewed program.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In 1961, <a href="Valentin_Bondarenko" title="Valentin Bondarenko">Valentin Bondarenko</a>, a cosmonaut training for a crewed Vostok mission, was killed in an endurance experiment after the chamber he was in caught on fire. The Soviet Union chose to cover up his death and continue on with the space program.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="After_Korolev">After Korolev</h3></div>

<p>Korolev died in January 1966 from complications of heart disease and severe hemorrhaging following a routine operation that uncovered <a href="Colon_cancer" class="mw-redirect" title="Colon cancer">colon cancer</a>. <a href="Kerim_Kerimov" title="Kerim Kerimov">Kerim Kerimov</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who had previously served as the head of the <a href="Strategic_Rocket_Forces" title="Strategic Rocket Forces">Strategic Rocket Forces</a> and had participated in the State Commission for <a href="Vostok_programme" title="Vostok programme">Vostok</a> as part of his duties,<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was appointed Chairman of the State Commission on Piloted Flights and headed it for the next 25 years (1966–1991). He supervised every stage of development and operation of both crewed space complexes as well as uncrewed interplanetary stations for the former Soviet Union. One of Kerimov's greatest achievements was the launch of <a href="Mir" title="Mir">Mir</a> in 1986.

</p><p>The leadership of the OKB-1 design bureau was given to <a href="Vasily_Mishin" title="Vasily Mishin">Vasily Mishin</a>, who had <a href="Soviet_crewed_lunar_programs" title="Soviet crewed lunar programs">the task of sending a human around the Moon in 1967 and landing a human on it in 1968</a>. Mishin lacked Korolev's political authority and still faced competition from other chief designers. Under pressure, Mishin approved the launch of the <a href="Soyuz_1" title="Soyuz 1">Soyuz 1</a> flight in 1967, even though the craft had never been successfully tested on an uncrewed flight. The mission launched with known design problems and ended with the vehicle crashing to the ground, killing <a href="Vladimir_Komarov" title="Vladimir Komarov">Vladimir Komarov</a>. This was the first in-flight fatality of any space program.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<p>The Soviets were beaten in sending the first crewed flight around the Moon in 1968 by <a href="Apollo_8" title="Apollo 8">Apollo 8</a>, but Mishin pressed ahead with development of the flawed super heavy <a href="N1_(rocket)" title="N1 (rocket)">N1</a>, in the hope that the Americans would have a setback, leaving enough time to make the N1 workable and land a man on the Moon first. There was a success with the joint flight of <a href="Soyuz_4" title="Soyuz 4">Soyuz 4</a> and <a href="Soyuz_5" title="Soyuz 5">Soyuz 5</a> in January 1969 that tested the rendezvous, docking, and crew transfer techniques that would be used for the landing, and the <a href="LK_(spacecraft)" title="LK (spacecraft)">LK lander</a> was tested successfully in earth orbit. But after four uncrewed test launches of the N1 ended in failure, the program was suspended for two years and then cancelled, removing any chance of the Soviets landing men on the Moon before the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-moon_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-moon-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Besides the crewed landings, the abandoned Soviet Moon program included the multipurpose moon base <a href="Zvezda_(moonbase)" title="Zvezda (moonbase)">Zvezda</a>, first detailed with developed mockups of expedition vehicles<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and surface modules.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Following this setback, Chelomey convinced Ustinov to approve a program in 1970 to advance his <a href="Almaz" title="Almaz">Almaz</a> military space station as a means of beating the US's announced <a href="Skylab" title="Skylab">Skylab</a>. Mishin remained in control of the project that became <a href="Salyut" class="mw-redirect" title="Salyut">Salyut</a> but the decision backed by Mishin to fly a three-man crew without pressure suits rather than a two-man crew with suits to <a href="Salyut_1" title="Salyut 1">Salyut 1</a> in 1971 proved fatal when the re-entry capsule depressurized killing the crew on their return to Earth. Mishin was removed from many projects, with Chelomey regaining control of Salyut. After working with <a href="NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a> on the <a href="Apollo%E2%80%93Soyuz" title="Apollo–Soyuz">Apollo–Soyuz</a>, the Soviet leadership decided a new management approach was needed, and in 1974 the N1 was canceled and Mishin was out of office. The design bureau was renamed <a href="NPO_Energia" class="mw-redirect" title="NPO Energia">NPO Energia</a> with Glushko as chief designer.<sup id="cite_ref-moon_79-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-moon-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In contrast with the difficulty faced in its early crewed lunar programs, the USSR found significant success with its remote moon operations, achieving two historical firsts with the automatic <a href="Lunokhod" class="mw-redirect" title="Lunokhod">Lunokhod</a> and the Luna <a href="Sample_return_mission" class="mw-redirect" title="Sample return mission">sample return missions</a>. The <a href="Mars_program" title="Mars program">Mars probe program</a> was also continued with some success, while the explorations of Venus and then of the Halley comet by the <a href="Venera" title="Venera">Venera</a> and <a href="Vega_program" title="Vega program">Vega</a> probe programs were more effective.<sup id="cite_ref-moon_79-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-moon-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Lunar_missions">Lunar missions</h2></div>

<p><a href="Luna_programme" title="Luna programme">The "Luna" programme</a>, achieved the first flyby of the moon by <a href="Luna_1" title="Luna 1">Luna 1</a> in 1959 (also marking the first time a probe reached the far side of the moon),<sup id="cite_ref-:1_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the first impact of the moon by <a href="Luna_2" title="Luna 2">Luna 2</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-:2_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the first photos of the far side of the moon by <a href="Luna_3" title="Luna 3">Luna 3</a>.

</p><p>As well as garnering scientific information on the moon, Luna 1 was able to detect a strong flow of <a href="Solar_wind" title="Solar wind">ionized plasma emanating from the Sun</a>, streaming through interplanetary space. Luna 2 impacted the moon east of <a href="Mare_Imbrium" title="Mare Imbrium">Mare Imbrium</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_83-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Photography transmitted by Luna 3 showed two dark regions which were named <a href="Mare_Moscoviense" title="Mare Moscoviense">Mare Moscoviense</a> (Sea of Moscow) and <a href="Mare_Desiderii" title="Mare Desiderii">Mare Desiderii</a> (Sea of Dreams), the latter was found to be composed of the smaller <a href="Mare_Ingenii" title="Mare Ingenii">Mare Ingenii</a> and other dark craters.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Luna 2 marked the first time a man-made object has contacted a celestial body. Luna 1 discovered the Moon had no magnetic field.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_82-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<p>In 1963, the Soviet Union's "2nd Generation" Luna programme was less successful, <a href="Luna_4" title="Luna 4">Luna 4</a>, <a href="Luna_5" title="Luna 5">Luna 5</a>, <a href="Luna_6" title="Luna 6">Luna 6</a>, <a href="Luna_7" title="Luna 7">Luna 7</a>, and <a href="Luna_8" title="Luna 8">Luna 8</a> were all met with mission failures. However, in 1966 <a href="Luna_9" title="Luna 9">Luna 9</a> achieved the first soft-landing on the Moon, and successfully transmitted photography from the surface.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="Luna_10" title="Luna 10">Luna 10</a> marked the first man-made object to establish an orbit around the Moon,<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> followed by <a href="Luna_11" title="Luna 11">Luna 11</a>, <a href="Luna_12" title="Luna 12">Luna 12</a>, and <a href="Luna_14" title="Luna 14">Luna 14</a> which also successfully established orbits. <a href="Luna_12" title="Luna 12">Luna 12</a> was able to transmit detailed photography of the surface from orbit.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Luna 10, 12, and <a href="Luna_14" title="Luna 14">Luna 14</a> conducted <a href="Gamma_ray_spectrometry" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamma ray spectrometry">Gamma ray spectrometry</a> of the Moon, among other tests.

</p>

<p>The <a href="Zond_program" title="Zond program">Zond programme</a> was orchestrated alongside the <i>Luna</i> programme with <a href="Zond_1" title="Zond 1">Zond 1</a> and <a href="Zond_2" title="Zond 2">Zond 2</a> launching in 1964, intended as flyby missions, however both failed.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="Zond_3" title="Zond 3">Zond 3</a> however was successful, and transmitted high quality photography from the far side of the moon.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<p>In late 1966, <a href="Luna_13" title="Luna 13">Luna 13</a> became the third spacecraft to make a soft-landing on the Moon, with the American <a href="Surveyor_1" title="Surveyor 1">Surveyor 1</a> having now taken second.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p><a href="Zond_4" title="Zond 4">Zond 4</a>, launched in 1968 was intended as a means to test the possibility of a crewed mission to the moon, including methods of a stable re-entry to earth from a Lunar trajectory using a heat shield.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It did not flyby the moon, but established an elliptical orbit at Lunar distance. Due to issues with the crafts orientation, it was unable to make a soft-landing in the Soviet union and instead was self destructed. Later in the year <a href="Zond_5" title="Zond 5">Zond 5</a>, carrying two <a href="Russian_tortoise" title="Russian tortoise">Russian tortoises</a> became the first man-made object to flyby the moon and return to Earth (as well as the first animal to flyby the moon), splashing down in the Indian Ocean.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="Zond_6" title="Zond 6">Zond 6</a>, <a href="Zond_7" title="Zond 7">Zond 7</a>, and <a href="Zond_8" title="Zond 8">Zond 8</a> had similar mission profiles, Zond 6 failed to return to earth safely, <a href="Zond_7" title="Zond 7">Zond 7</a> did however and returned high quality color photography of the earth and the moon from varying distances,<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Zond 8 successfully returned to earth after a Lunar flyby.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<p>In 1969, <a href="Luna_15" title="Luna 15">Luna 15</a> was an intended lunar sample return mission, however resulted in a crash landing.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1970 however <a href="Luna_16" title="Luna 16">Luna 16</a> became the first robotic probe to land on the Moon and return a surface sample, having drilled 35 cm into the surface,<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to Earth and represented the first lunar sample return mission by the Soviet Union and the third overall, having followed the <a href="Apollo_11" title="Apollo 11">Apollo 11</a> and <a href="Apollo_12" title="Apollo 12">Apollo 12</a> crewed missions.

</p><p><a href="Luna_17" title="Luna 17">Luna 17</a>, <a href="Luna_21" title="Luna 21">Luna 21</a> and <a href="Luna_24" title="Luna 24">Luna 24</a> delivered rovers onto the surface of the moon.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="Luna_20" title="Luna 20">Luna 20</a> was another successful sample return mission.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="Luna_18" title="Luna 18">Luna 18</a> and <a href="Luna_23" title="Luna 23">Luna 23</a> resulted in crash landings.

</p><p>In total there were 24 missions in the <i>Luna</i> Programme, 15 were considered to be successful, including 4 hard landings and 3 soft landings, 6 orbits, and 2 flybys. The programme was continued after the collapse of the Soviet union, when the <a href="Roscosmos" title="Roscosmos">Russian federation space agency</a> launched <a href="Luna_25" title="Luna 25">Luna 25</a> in 2023.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Venusian_missions">Venusian missions</h2></div>

<p>The <a href="Venera" title="Venera">Venera</a> programme marked many firsts in space exploration and <a href="Observations_and_explorations_of_Venus" title="Observations and explorations of Venus">explorations of Venus</a>. <a href="Venera_1" title="Venera 1">Venera 1</a> and <a href="Venera_2" title="Venera 2">Venera 2</a> resulted in failure due to losses of contact, <a href="Venera_3" title="Venera 3">Venera 3</a>, which also lost contact, marked the first time a man-made object made contact with another planet after it impacted Venus on March 1, 1966. <a href="Venera_4" title="Venera 4">Venera 4</a>, <a href="Venera_5" title="Venera 5">Venera 5</a>, and <a href="Venera_6" title="Venera 6">Venera 6</a> performed successful atmospheric entry. In 1970 <a href="Venera#Venera_7" title="Venera">Venera 7</a> marked the first time a spacecraft was able to return data after landing on another planet.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Venera 7 held a resistant <a href="Thermometer" title="Thermometer">thermometer</a> and an aneroid <a href="Barometer" title="Barometer">barometer</a> to measure the temperature and atmospheric pressure on the surface, the transmitted data showed 475 C at the surface, and a pressure of 92 bar. A wind of 2.5 meters/sec was extrapolated from other measurements. The landing point of Venera 7 was <span class="geo-inline"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><span class=" nourlexpansion"><a class="external text" href="geo:-5,-9"><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">5°S</span> <span class="longitude">9°W</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct"> / </span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">5°S 9°W</span><span style="display:none"> / <span class="geo">-5; -9</span></span></span></a></span></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Venera 7 impacted the surface at a somewhat high speed of 17 metres per second, later analysis of the recorded radio signals revealed that the probe had survived the impact and continued transmitting a weak signal for another 23 minutes. It is believed that the spacecraft may have bounced upon impact and come to rest on its side, so the antenna was not pointed towards Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_102-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<p>In 1972, <a href="Venera_8" title="Venera 8">Venera 8</a> landed on Venus and measured the light level as being suitable for surface photography, finding it to be similar to the amount of light on Earth on an overcast day with roughly 1 km visibility.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In 1975, <a href="Venera_9" title="Venera 9">Venera 9</a> established an orbit around Venus and successfully returned the first photography of the surface of Venus.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="Venera_10" title="Venera 10">Venera 10</a> landed on Venus and followed with further photography shortly after.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In 1978, <a href="Venera_11" title="Venera 11">Venera 11</a> and <a href="Venera_12" title="Venera 12">Venera 12</a> successfully landed, however ran into issues performing photography and soil analysis. Venera 11's light sensor detected lightning strikes.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<p>In 1981, <a href="Venera_13" title="Venera 13">Venera 13</a> performed a successful soft-landing on Venus and marked the first probe to drill into the surface of another planet and take a sample.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Venera 13 also took an audio sample of the Venusian environment, marking another first.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Venera 13 returned the first color images of the surface of Venus, revealing an orange-brown flat bedrock surface covered with loose <a href="Regolith" title="Regolith">regolith</a> and small flat thin angular rocks. The composition of the sample determined by the X-ray fluorescence spectrometer put it in the class of weakly differentiated melanocratic alkaline gabbroids, similar to terrestrial leucitic basalt with a high potassium content. The acoustic detector returned the sounds of the spacecraft operations and the background wind, estimated to be a speed of around 0.5 m/sec wind.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_113-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p><a href="Venera_14" title="Venera 14">Venera 14</a>, an identical spacecraft to Venera 13, launched 5 days apart. The mission profiles were very similar, except 14 ran into issues using it's spectrometer to analyze the soil.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In total 10 Venera probes achieved a soft landing on the surface of Venus.

</p><p>In 1984, the <a href="Vega_program" title="Vega program">Vega programme</a> began and ended with the launch of two crafts launched 6 days apart, <a href="Vega_1" title="Vega 1">Vega 1</a> and <a href="Vega_2" title="Vega 2">Vega 2</a>. Both crafts deployed a balloon in addition to a lander, marking a first in spaceflight.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Martian_missions">Martian missions</h2></div>

<p>The first Soviet mission to <a href="Exploration_of_Mars" title="Exploration of Mars">explore Mars</a>, <a href="Mars_1" title="Mars 1">Mars 1</a>, was launched in 1962. Although it was intended to fly by the planet and transmit scientific data, the spacecraft lost contact before reaching Mars, marking a setback for the program. In 1971, the Soviet Union launched <a href="Mars_2" title="Mars 2">Mars 2</a> and <a href="Mars_3" title="Mars 3">Mars 3</a>. Mars 2 became the first spacecraft to reach the surface of mars, however this was a <a href="Hard_landing" title="Hard landing">hard landing</a> and was destroyed on impact.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, Mars 3 achieved a historic milestone by becoming the first successful soft landing on Mars. Mars 3 used parachutes and rockets as part of its landing system, however contacted the surface at a somewhat high speed of 20 metres per second. Unfortunately, its lander transmitted data for only up to 20 seconds before it went silent.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Following the initial successes and setbacks, the <a href="Mars_4" title="Mars 4">Mars 4</a>, <a href="Mars_5" title="Mars 5">Mars 5</a>, <a href="Mars_6" title="Mars 6">Mars 6</a>, and <a href="Mars_7" title="Mars 7">Mars 7</a> missions were launched between 1969 and 1973. Mars 4 and Mars 5 performed successful flybys, performing analysis which detected the presence of a weak Ozone layer and magnetic field corroborating analysis done by the American <a href="Mariner_4" title="Mariner 4">Mariner 4</a> and <a href="Mariner_9" title="Mariner 9">Mariner 9</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mars 6 and Mars 7 failed to successfully land.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Salyut_space_station">Salyut space station</h2></div>

<p>The <a href="Salyut_programme" title="Salyut programme">Salyut programme</a> was a series of missions which established the first earth orbit Space station.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Salyut" meaning "Salute" translated.

</p>

<p>Initially, the <i>Salyut</i> stations served as research laboratories in orbit. <a href="Salyut_1" title="Salyut 1">Salyut 1</a>, the first in the series, launched in 1971, was primarily a civilian scientific mission. The crew set a then record-setting 24-day mission though its tragic end due to the death of the <i>Soyuz-11</i> crew after a docking accident underscored the high risks of human spaceflight.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following this, the Soviet Union also developed <a href="Salyut_2" title="Salyut 2">Salyut 2</a> and <a href="Salyut_3" title="Salyut 3">Salyut 3</a>, which featured reconnaissance capabilities and carried a <a href="Salyut_3#On-board_gun" title="Salyut 3">large gun</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-:0_125-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> both ran into significant issues during their missions.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This dual use design of both scientific and military research applications demonstrated the Soviet Union's strategy of blending scientific achievement with defense applications.

</p>

<p>As the <i>Salyut</i> program progressed, later missions like <a href="Salyut_6" title="Salyut 6">Salyut 6</a> and <a href="Salyut_7" title="Salyut 7">Salyut 7</a> improved upon earlier designs by allowing long-duration crewed missions and more complex experiments. These stations, with their expanded crew capacity and amenities for long term stay, carrying electric stoves, a refrigerator, and constant hot water.<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>Salyut</i> series effectively paved the way for future Soviet and later Russian space stations, including the <a href="Mir" title="Mir">Mir</a> space station, which would become a significant part in the history of long-term space exploration.

</p><p>The longest stay, aboard Salyut 7, was 237 days.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Program_secrecy">Program secrecy</h2></div>

<p>The Soviet space program had withheld information on its projects predating the success of <a href="Sputnik" class="mw-redirect" title="Sputnik">Sputnik</a>, the world's first artificial satellite. In fact, when the Sputnik project was first approved, one of the most immediate courses of action the <a href="Politburo" title="Politburo">Politburo</a> took was to consider what to announce to the world regarding their event.<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The <a href="Telegraph_Agency_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Telegraph Agency of the Soviet Union">Telegraph Agency of the Soviet Union</a> (TASS) established precedents for all official announcements on the Soviet space program.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The information eventually released did not offer details on who built and launched the satellite or why it was launched. The public release revealed, "there is an abundance of arcane scientific and technical data... as if to overwhelm the reader with mathematics in the absence of even a picture of the object".<sup id="cite_ref-University_of_Pittsburgh_Press,_Siddiqi_&_Andrews,_2011_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-University_of_Pittsburgh_Press,_Siddiqi_&_Andrews,_2011-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> What remains of the release is the pride for Soviet <a href="Cosmonautics" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmonautics">cosmonautics</a> and the vague hinting of future possibilities then available after <a href="Sputnik" class="mw-redirect" title="Sputnik">Sputnik</a>'s success.<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The Soviet space program's use of secrecy served as both a tool to prevent the leaking of classified information between countries and also to create a mysterious barrier between the space program and the Soviet populace. The program's nature embodied ambiguous messages concerning its goals, successes, and values. Launchings were not announced until they took place. <a href="Cosmonaut" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmonaut">Cosmonaut</a> names were not released until they flew. Mission details were sparse. Outside observers did not know the size or shape of their rockets or cabins or most of their spaceships, except for the first Sputniks, lunar probes and Venus probe.<sup id="cite_ref-ebooks.ohiolink.edu_135-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ebooks.ohiolink.edu-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<p>However, the military influence over the Soviet space program may be the best explanation for this secrecy. The <a href="OKB-1" class="mw-redirect" title="OKB-1">OKB-1</a> was subordinated under the <a href="Ministry_of_General_Machine-Building" title="Ministry of General Machine-Building">Ministry of General Machine-Building</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-University_of_Pittsburgh_Press,_Siddiqi_&_Andrews,_2011_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-University_of_Pittsburgh_Press,_Siddiqi_&_Andrews,_2011-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> tasked with the development of intercontinental ballistic missiles, and continued to give its assets random identifiers into the 1960s: "For example, the <a href="Vostok_(spacecraft)" title="Vostok (spacecraft)">Vostok</a> spacecraft was referred to as 'object IIF63' while its launch rocket was 'object 8K72K'".<sup id="cite_ref-University_of_Pittsburgh_Press,_Siddiqi_&_Andrews,_2011_8-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-University_of_Pittsburgh_Press,_Siddiqi_&_Andrews,_2011-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Soviet defense factories had been assigned numbers rather than names since 1927. Even these internal codes were obfuscated: in public, employees used a separate code, a set of special post-office numbers, to refer to the factories, institutes, and departments.

</p><p>The program's public pronouncements were uniformly positive: as far as the people knew, the Soviet space program had never experienced failure. According to historian James Andrews, "With almost no exceptions, coverage of Soviet space exploits, especially in the case of human space missions, omitted reports of failure or trouble".<sup id="cite_ref-University_of_Pittsburgh_Press,_Siddiqi_&_Andrews,_2011_8-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-University_of_Pittsburgh_Press,_Siddiqi_&_Andrews,_2011-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>According to Dominic Phelan in the book <i>Cold War Space Sleuths</i>, "The <a href="USSR" class="mw-redirect" title="USSR">USSR</a> was famously described by <a href="Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a> as 'a riddle, wrapped in a mystery, inside an enigma' and nothing signified this more than the search for the truth behind its space program during the Cold War. Although the <a href="Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a> was literally played out above our heads, it was often obscured by a figurative 'space curtain' that took much effort to see through."<sup id="cite_ref-ebooks.ohiolink.edu_135-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ebooks.ohiolink.edu-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Projects_and_accomplishments">Projects and accomplishments</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Completed_projects">Completed projects</h3></div>

<p>The Soviet space program's projects include:

</p>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;">

<ul><li><a href="Almaz" title="Almaz">Almaz</a> space stations</li>

<li><a href="Cosmos_(satellite)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmos (satellite)">Cosmos</a> satellites</li>

<li><a href="Foton_(space_programs)" class="mw-redirect" title="Foton (space programs)">Foton</a></li>

<li><a href="Luna_program" class="mw-redirect" title="Luna program">Luna</a> – Moon flybys, orbiters, impacts, landers, rovers, sample returns</li>

<li><a href="Mars_probe_program" class="mw-redirect" title="Mars probe program">Mars probe program</a></li>

<li><a href="Meteor_(satellite)" title="Meteor (satellite)">Meteor meteorological satellites</a></li>

<li><a href="Molniya_(satellite)" title="Molniya (satellite)">Molniya</a> communications satellites</li>

<li><a href="Mir" title="Mir">Mir</a> space station</li>

<li><a href="Proton_satellite" class="mw-redirect" title="Proton satellite">Proton satellites</a></li>

<li><a href="Phobos_program" title="Phobos program">Phobos</a> Mars probes program</li>

<li><a href="Salyut" class="mw-redirect" title="Salyut">Salyut</a> space stations</li>

<li><a href="Soyuz_program" class="mw-redirect" title="Soyuz program">Soyuz program</a> spacecraft</li>

<li><a href="Sputnik_program" class="mw-redirect" title="Sputnik program">Sputnik</a> satellites</li>

<li><a href="TKS_spacecraft" class="mw-redirect" title="TKS spacecraft">TKS spacecraft</a></li>

<li><a href="Venera" title="Venera">Venera</a> – Venus probes program</li>

<li><a href="Vega_program" title="Vega program">Vega program</a> – Venus and comet Halley probes program</li>

<li><a href="Vostok_program" class="mw-redirect" title="Vostok program">Vostok program</a> spacecraft</li>

<li><a href="Voskhod_program" class="mw-redirect" title="Voskhod program">Voskhod program</a> spacecraft</li>

<li><a href="Zond_program" title="Zond program">Zond program</a></li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notable_firsts">Notable firsts</h3></div>

<p>Two days after the United States announced its intention to launch an <a href="Artificial_satellite" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial satellite">artificial satellite</a>, on July 31, 1955, the Soviet Union announced its intention to do the same. <a href="Sputnik_1" title="Sputnik 1">Sputnik 1</a> was launched on October 4, 1957, beating the United States and stunning people all over the world.<sup id="cite_ref-High_Frontier_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-High_Frontier-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The Soviet space program pioneered many aspects of space exploration:

</p>

<ul><li>1957: First intercontinental ballistic missile and orbital launch vehicle, the <a href="R-7_Semyorka" title="R-7 Semyorka">R-7 Semyorka</a>.</li>

<li>1957: First satellite, <a href="Sputnik_1" title="Sputnik 1">Sputnik 1</a>.</li>

<li>1957: First animal in Earth orbit, the dog <a href="Laika" title="Laika">Laika</a> on <a href="Sputnik_2" title="Sputnik 2">Sputnik 2</a>.</li>

<li>1959: First rocket ignition in Earth orbit, first man-made object to escape Earth's gravity, <a href="Luna_1" title="Luna 1">Luna 1</a>.</li>

<li>1959: First data communications, or <a href="Telemetry" title="Telemetry">telemetry</a>, to and from <a href="Outer_space" title="Outer space">outer space</a>, <a href="Luna_1" title="Luna 1">Luna 1</a>.</li>

<li>1959: First man-made object to pass near the <a href="Moon" title="Moon">Moon</a>, first man-made object in Heliocentric orbit, <a href="Luna_1" title="Luna 1">Luna 1</a>.</li>

<li>1959: First probe to impact the Moon, <a href="Luna_2" title="Luna 2">Luna 2</a>.</li>

<li>1959: First images of the Moon's <a href="Far_side_(Moon)" class="mw-redirect" title="Far side (Moon)">far side</a>, <a href="Luna_3" title="Luna 3">Luna 3</a>.</li>

<li>1960: First animals to safely return from Earth orbit, the dogs <a href="Belka_and_Strelka" title="Belka and Strelka">Belka and Strelka</a> on <a href="Korabl-Sputnik_2" title="Korabl-Sputnik 2">Sputnik 5</a>.</li>

<li>1961: First probe launched to Venus, <a href="Venera_1" title="Venera 1">Venera 1</a>.</li>

<li>1961: First person in space (International definition) and in Earth orbit, <a href="Yuri_Gagarin" title="Yuri Gagarin">Yuri Gagarin</a> on <a href="Vostok_1" title="Vostok 1">Vostok 1</a>, <a href="Vostok_programme" title="Vostok programme">Vostok program</a>.</li>

<li>1961: First person to spend over 24 hours in space <a href="Gherman_Titov" title="Gherman Titov">Gherman Titov</a>, <a href="Vostok_2" title="Vostok 2">Vostok 2</a> (also first person to sleep in space).</li>

<li>1962: First dual crewed spaceflight, <a href="Vostok_3" class="mw-redirect" title="Vostok 3">Vostok 3</a> and <a href="Vostok_4" class="mw-redirect" title="Vostok 4">Vostok 4</a>.</li>

<li>1962: First probe launched to Mars, <a href="Mars_1" title="Mars 1">Mars 1</a>.</li>

<li>1963: First woman in space, <a href="Valentina_Tereshkova" title="Valentina Tereshkova">Valentina Tereshkova</a>, <a href="Vostok_6" title="Vostok 6">Vostok 6</a>.</li>

<li>1964: First multi-person crew (3), <a href="Voskhod_1" title="Voskhod 1">Voskhod 1</a>.</li>

<li>1965: First extra-vehicular activity (<a href="Extra-vehicular_activity" class="mw-redirect" title="Extra-vehicular activity">EVA</a>), by <a href="Alexsei_Leonov" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexsei Leonov">Alexsei Leonov</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-First-Spacewalk_138-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-First-Spacewalk-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="Voskhod_2" title="Voskhod 2">Voskhod 2</a>.</li>

<li>1965: First radio telescope in space, <a href="Zond_3" title="Zond 3">Zond 3</a>.</li>

<li>1965: First probe to hit another planet of the <a href="Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a> (<a href="Venus" title="Venus">Venus</a>), <a href="Venera_3" title="Venera 3">Venera 3</a>.</li>

<li>1966: First probe to make a soft landing on and transmit from the surface of the Moon, <a href="Luna_9" title="Luna 9">Luna 9</a>.</li>

<li>1966: First probe in lunar orbit, <a href="Luna_10" title="Luna 10">Luna 10</a>.</li>

<li>1966: <a href="First_images_of_Earth_from_space" class="mw-redirect" title="First images of Earth from space">First image of the whole Earth disk</a>, <a href="Molniya_1" title="Molniya 1">Molniya 1</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li>1967: First uncrewed rendezvous and docking, <a href="Cosmos_186" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmos 186">Cosmos 186</a>/<a href="Cosmos_188" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmos 188">Cosmos 188</a>.</li>

<li>1968: First living beings to reach the Moon (circumlunar flights) and return unharmed to Earth, <a href="Russian_tortoise" title="Russian tortoise">Russian tortoises</a> and other lifeforms on <a href="Zond_5" title="Zond 5">Zond 5</a>.</li>

<li>1969: First docking between two crewed craft in Earth orbit and exchange of crews, <a href="Soyuz_4" title="Soyuz 4">Soyuz 4</a> and <a href="Soyuz_5" title="Soyuz 5">Soyuz 5</a>.</li>

<li>1970: First soil samples automatically extracted and returned to Earth from another celestial body, <a href="Luna_16" title="Luna 16">Luna 16</a>.</li>

<li>1970: First robotic space rover, <a href="Lunokhod_1" title="Lunokhod 1">Lunokhod 1</a> on the Moon.</li>

<li>1970: First full <a href="Interplanetary_travel" class="mw-redirect" title="Interplanetary travel">interplanetary travel</a> with a soft landing and useful data transmission. Data received from the surface of another planet of the Solar System (<a href="Venus" title="Venus">Venus</a>), <a href="Venera_7" title="Venera 7">Venera 7</a></li>

<li>1971: First space station, <a href="Salyut_1" title="Salyut 1">Salyut 1</a>.</li>

<li>1971: First probe to impact the surface of Mars, <a href="Mars_2" title="Mars 2">Mars 2</a>.</li>

<li>1971: First probe to land on Mars, <a href="Mars_3" title="Mars 3">Mars 3</a>.</li>

<li>1971: First armed space station, <a href="Almaz" title="Almaz">Almaz</a>.</li>

<li>1975: First probe to orbit Venus, to make a soft landing on Venus, first photos from the surface of Venus, <a href="Venera_9" title="Venera 9">Venera 9</a>.</li>

<li>1980: First Asian person in space, Vietnamese Cosmonaut <a href="Pham_Tuan" class="mw-redirect" title="Pham Tuan">Pham Tuan</a> on <a href="Soyuz_37" title="Soyuz 37">Soyuz 37</a>; and First <a href="Latin_American" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin American">Latin American</a>, <a href="Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuban</a> and person with African ancestry in space, <a href="Arnaldo_Tamayo_M%C3%A9ndez" title="Arnaldo Tamayo Méndez">Arnaldo Tamayo Méndez</a> on <a href="Soyuz_38" title="Soyuz 38">Soyuz 38</a></li>

<li>1984: First <a href="India" title="India">Indian</a> Astronaut in space, <a href="Rakesh_Sharma" title="Rakesh Sharma">Rakesh Sharma</a> on <a href="Soyuz_T-11" title="Soyuz T-11">Soyuz T-11</a> (<a href="Salyut_7" title="Salyut 7">Salyut-7</a> space station).</li>

<li>1984: First woman to <a href="Extra-vehicular_activity" class="mw-redirect" title="Extra-vehicular activity">walk in space</a>, <a href="Svetlana_Savitskaya" title="Svetlana Savitskaya">Svetlana Savitskaya</a> (<a href="Salyut_7" title="Salyut 7">Salyut 7</a> space station).</li>

<li>1986: First crew to visit two separate space stations (<a href="Mir" title="Mir">Mir</a> and <a href="Salyut_7" title="Salyut 7">Salyut 7</a>).</li>

<li>1986: First probes to deploy robotic balloons into Venus atmosphere and to return pictures of a comet during close flyby <a href="Vega_1" title="Vega 1">Vega 1</a>, <a href="Vega_2" title="Vega 2">Vega 2</a>.</li>

<li>1986: First permanently crewed space station, <a href="Mir" title="Mir">Mir</a>, 1986–2001, with a permanent presence on board (1989–1999).</li>

<li>1987: First crew to spend over one year in space, <a href="Vladimir_Titov_(cosmonaut)" title="Vladimir Titov (cosmonaut)">Vladimir Titov</a> and <a href="Musa_Manarov" title="Musa Manarov">Musa Manarov</a> on board of <a href="Soyuz_TM-4" title="Soyuz TM-4">Soyuz TM-4</a> – <a href="Mir" title="Mir">Mir</a>.</li>

<li>1988: First fully automated flight of a spaceplane (<i><a href="Buran_(spacecraft)" title="Buran (spacecraft)">Buran</a></i>).</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Incidents,_failures,_and_setbacks">Incidents, failures, and setbacks</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Accidents_and_cover-ups">Accidents and cover-ups</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="List_of_spaceflight-related_accidents_and_incidents" title="List of spaceflight-related accidents and incidents">List of spaceflight-related accidents and incidents</a></div>

<p>The Soviet space program experienced a number of fatal incidents and failures.<sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The first official cosmonaut fatality during training occurred on March 23, 1961, when <a href="Valentin_Bondarenko" title="Valentin Bondarenko">Valentin Bondarenko</a> died in a fire within a low pressure, high oxygen atmosphere.

</p><p>On April 23, 1967, <a href="Soyuz_1" title="Soyuz 1">Soyuz 1</a> crashed into the ground at 90 mph (140 km/h) due to a parachute failure, killing <a href="Vladimir_Komarov" title="Vladimir Komarov">Vladimir Komarov</a>. Komarov's death was the first <a href="List_of_spaceflight-related_accidents_and_incidents" title="List of spaceflight-related accidents and incidents">in-flight fatality</a> in the <a href="History_of_spaceflight" title="History of spaceflight">history of spaceflight</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The Soviets continued striving for the first lunar mission with the <a href="N-1_rocket" class="mw-redirect" title="N-1 rocket">N-1 rocket</a>, which exploded on each of four uncrewed tests shortly after launch. The <a href="United_States" title="United States">Americans</a> won the race to land men on the Moon with <a href="Apollo_11" title="Apollo 11">Apollo 11</a> on July 20, 1969.

</p><p>In 1971, the <a href="Soyuz_11" title="Soyuz 11">Soyuz 11</a> mission to stay at the <a href="Salyut_1" title="Salyut 1">Salyut 1</a> space station resulted in the deaths of three cosmonauts when the reentry capsule depressurized during preparations for reentry. This accident resulted in the only human casualties to occur in space (beyond 100 km (62 mi), as opposed to the high atmosphere). The crew members aboard Soyuz 11 were <a href="Vladislav_Volkov" title="Vladislav Volkov">Vladislav Volkov</a>, <a href="Georgy_Dobrovolsky" title="Georgy Dobrovolsky">Georgy Dobrovolsky</a>, and <a href="Viktor_Patsayev" title="Viktor Patsayev">Viktor Patsayev</a>.

</p><p>On April 5, 1975, <a href="Soyuz_7K-T_No.39" title="Soyuz 7K-T No.39">Soyuz 7K-T No.39</a>, the second stage of a Soyuz rocket carrying two cosmonauts to the <a href="Salyut_4" title="Salyut 4">Salyut 4</a> space station malfunctioned, resulting in the first crewed launch abort. The cosmonauts were carried several thousand miles downrange and became worried that they would land in China, <a href="Sino-Soviet_split" title="Sino-Soviet split">which the Soviet Union was having difficult relations with at the time</a>. The capsule hit a mountain, sliding down a slope and almost slid off a cliff; however, the parachute lines snagged on trees and kept this from happening. As it was, the two suffered severe injuries and the commander, Lazarev, never flew again.

</p><p>On March 18, 1980, a <a href="Vostok_rocket" class="mw-redirect" title="Vostok rocket">Vostok rocket</a> <a href="1980_Plesetsk_launch_pad_disaster" title="1980 Plesetsk launch pad disaster">exploded on its launch pad</a> during a fueling operation, killing 48 people.<sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In August 1981, <a href="Kosmos_434" title="Kosmos 434">Kosmos 434</a>, which had been launched in 1971, was about to re-enter. To allay fears that the spacecraft carried nuclear materials, a spokesperson from the <a href="Ministry_of_Foreign_Affairs_(Soviet_Union)" title="Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Soviet Union)">Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the USSR</a> assured the Australian government on 26 August 1981, that the satellite was "an experimental lunar cabin". This was one of the first admissions by the Soviet Union that it had ever engaged in a crewed lunar spaceflight program.<sup id="cite_ref-siddiqi2000_66-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-siddiqi2000-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 736">: 736 </span></sup>

</p><p>In September 1983, a Soyuz rocket being launched to carry cosmonauts to the <a href="Salyut_7" title="Salyut 7">Salyut 7</a> space station exploded on the pad, causing the Soyuz capsule's abort system to engage, saving the two cosmonauts on board.<sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Buran">Buran</h3></div>

<p>The Soviet <a href="Buran_program" class="mw-redirect" title="Buran program">Buran program</a> attempted to produce a class of spaceplanes launched from the <a href="Energia_(rocket)" title="Energia (rocket)">Energia</a> rocket, in response to the US <a href="Space_Shuttle" title="Space Shuttle">Space Shuttle</a>. It was intended to operate in support of large space-based military platforms as a response to the <a href="Strategic_Defense_Initiative" title="Strategic Defense Initiative">Strategic Defense Initiative</a>. Buran only had orbital maneuvering engines, unlike the Space Shuttle, Buran did not fire engines during launch, instead relying entirely on Energia to lift it out of the atmosphere. It copied the airframe and <a href="Thermal_protection_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal protection system">thermal protection system</a> design of the US <a href="Space_Shuttle_Orbiter" class="mw-redirect" title="Space Shuttle Orbiter">Space Shuttle Orbiter</a>, with a maximum payload of 30 metric tons (slightly higher than that of the Space Shuttle), and weighed less.<sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It also had the capability to land autonomously. Due to this, some retroactively consider it to be the more capable launch vehicle.<sup id="cite_ref-146" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the time the system was ready to fly in orbit in 1988, strategic arms reduction treaties made Buran redundant. On November 15, 1988, Buran and its Energia rocket were launched from <a href="Baikonur_Cosmodrome" title="Baikonur Cosmodrome">Baikonur Cosmodrome</a> in <a href="Kazakhstan" title="Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a>, and after two orbits in three hours, glided to a landing a few miles from its launch pad.<sup id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the craft survived that re-entry, the heat shield was not reusable. This failure resulted from United States counter intelligence efforts.<sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After this test flight, the Soviet Ministry of Defense would defund the program, considering it relatively pointless compared to its price.<sup id="cite_ref-149" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Polyus_satellite">Polyus satellite</h3></div>

<p>The <a href="Polyus_(spacecraft)" title="Polyus (spacecraft)">Polyus satellite</a> was a prototype <a href="Space_weapon" title="Space weapon">orbital weapons platform</a> designed to destroy <a href="Strategic_Defense_Initiative" title="Strategic Defense Initiative">Strategic Defense Initiative</a> satellites with a megawatt <a href="Carbon_dioxide_laser" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon dioxide laser">carbon-dioxide laser</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-starwars_150-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-starwars-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Launched mounted upside-down on its <a href="Energia_(rocket)" title="Energia (rocket)">Energia rocket</a>, its single flight test was a failure when the <a href="Inertial_guidance_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Inertial guidance system">inertial guidance system</a> failed to rotate it 180° and instead rotated a complete 360°.<sup id="cite_ref-grondine_151-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-grondine-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Canceled_projects">Canceled projects</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Energia_rocket">Energia rocket</h3></div>

<p>The <a href="Energia_(rocket)" title="Energia (rocket)">Energia</a> was a successfully developed <a href="Super_heavy-lift_launch_vehicle" title="Super heavy-lift launch vehicle">super heavy-lift launch vehicle</a> which burned <a href="Hydrogen_rocket_fuel" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen rocket fuel">liquid hydrogen fuel</a>. But without the Buran or Polyus payloads to launch, it was also canceled due to lack of funding on dissolution of the USSR.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Interplanetary_projects">Interplanetary projects</h3></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mars_missions">Mars missions</h4></div>

<ul><li>Heavy rover <a href="Mars_4NM" class="mw-redirect" title="Mars 4NM">Mars 4NM</a> was going to be launched by the abandoned <a href="N1_(rocket)" title="N1 (rocket)">N1</a> launcher between 1974 and 1975.</li>

<li>Mars <a href="Sample_return_mission" class="mw-redirect" title="Sample return mission">sample return mission</a> <a href="Mars_5NM" class="mw-redirect" title="Mars 5NM">Mars 5NM</a> was going to be launched by a single N1 launcher in 1975.</li>

<li>Mars sample return mission <a href="Mars_5M" title="Mars 5M">Mars 5M</a> or (Mars-79) was to be double launched in parts by Proton launchers, and then joined in orbit for flight to Mars in 1979.</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Vesta">Vesta</h4></div>

<p>The <a href="Vesta_mission" class="mw-redirect" title="Vesta mission">Vesta mission</a> would have consisted of two identical double-purposed interplanetary probes to be launched in 1991. It was intended to fly-by Mars (instead of an early plan to Venus) and then study four asteroids belonging to different classes. At <a href="4_Vesta" title="4 Vesta">4 Vesta</a> a penetrator would be released.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Tsiolkovsky">Tsiolkovsky</h4></div>

<p>The Tsiolkovsky mission was planned as a double-purposed deep interplanetary probe to be launched in the 1990s to make a "sling shot" flyby of <a href="Jupiter" title="Jupiter">Jupiter</a> and then pass within five or seven radii of the <a href="Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a>. A derivative of this spacecraft would possibly be launched toward <a href="Saturn" title="Saturn">Saturn</a> and beyond.<sup id="cite_ref-152" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style>

<ul><li><a href="DRAKON" title="DRAKON">DRAKON</a>, an algorithmic visual programming language developed for the Buran space project.</li>

<li><a href="Intercosmos" class="mw-redirect" title="Intercosmos">Intercosmos</a>, a Soviet space program designed to give nations on friendly relations with the Soviet Union access to crewed and uncrewed space missions</li>

<li><a href="List_of_Russian_aerospace_engineers" title="List of Russian aerospace engineers">List of Russian aerospace engineers</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_Russian_explorers" title="List of Russian explorers">List of Russian explorers</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_space_disasters" class="mw-redirect" title="List of space disasters">List of space disasters</a></li>

<li><a href="Pilot-Cosmonaut_of_the_USSR" title="Pilot-Cosmonaut of the USSR">Pilot-Cosmonaut of the USSR</a>, an honorary title</li>

<li><a href="Roscosmos" title="Roscosmos">Roscosmos</a>, the program's eventual post-Soviet continuation under the <a href="Russian_Federation" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian Federation">Russian Federation</a></li>

<li><a href="Roscosmos_Cosmonaut_Corps" title="Roscosmos Cosmonaut Corps">Roscosmos Cosmonaut Corps</a>, Russian astronaut corps</li>

<li><a href="Sheldon_names" title="Sheldon names">Sheldon names</a>, which were used to identify launch vehicles of the Soviet Union when their Soviet names were unknown in the USA</li>

<li><a href="Soviet_rocketry" title="Soviet rocketry">Soviet rocketry</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a></li>

<li><i><a href="Tank_on_the_Moon" title="Tank on the Moon">Tank on the Moon</a></i>, a 2007 French documentary film on the Lunokhod program</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><div class="reflist">

<li id="cite_note-zavtra-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-zavtra_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://zavtra.ru/content/view/polveka-bez-korolyova/">Полвека без Королёва</a>, zavtra.ru. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/20160628043911/http://zavtra.ru/content/view/polveka-bez-korolyova/">Archived</a> 28 June 2016 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span>

</li>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("./mw/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("./mw/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("./mw/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("./mw/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><cite class="citation cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:ru:Постановление Государственного Совета СССР от 14.11.1991 № 13"><a class="external text external" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/ru:%D0%9F%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0_%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A0_%D0%BE%D1%82_14.11.1991_%E2%84%96_13"><i>Resolution of the State Council of the Soviet Union of 14 November 1991 No. 13</i> </a></span> (in Russian) – via <a href="Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFReichl2019" class="citation book cs1">Reichl, Eugen (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=O-HnuwEACAAJ"><i>The Soviet Space Program: The Lunar Mission Years: 1959–1976</i></a>. Atglen, PA: Schiffer Publishing, Limited. p. 160. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-7643-5675-9</bdi><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 22,</span> 2022</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rmg.co.uk/stories/topics/space-race-timeline">"Space Race Timeline"</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rusconstitution.ru/library/constitution/articles/9660/">"2 апреля 1955 года «Об образовании общесоюзного Министерства общего машиностроения СССР»"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160610100216/http://www.rusconstitution.ru/library/constitution/articles/9660/">Archived</a> from the original on June 10, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 3,</span> 2016</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aif.ru/society/science/1313783">Вертикальная структура: как реорганизуется космическая отрасль России</a>, <a href="%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B3%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%8B_%D0%B8_%D1%84%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%8B" class="mw-redirect" title="Аргументы и факты">АиФ</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/20160530161535/http://www.aif.ru/society/science/1313783">Archived</a> 30 May 2016 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.groundzerobooksltd.com/pages/books/80639/union-of-soviet-socialist-republics/postal-stationery-russia-airmail-envelope-with-depiction-of-the-earth-being-orbited-and-four-gold">"Postal Stationery Russia Airmail Envelope with Depiction of the Earth Being Orbited and Four Gold Stars"</a>. <i>groundzerobooksltd.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 18,</span> 2021</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-University_of_Pittsburgh_Press,_Siddiqi_&_Andrews,_2011-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-University_of_Pittsburgh_Press,_Siddiqi_&_Andrews,_2011_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-University_of_Pittsburgh_Press,_Siddiqi_&_Andrews,_2011_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-University_of_Pittsburgh_Press,_Siddiqi_&_Andrews,_2011_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-University_of_Pittsburgh_Press,_Siddiqi_&_Andrews,_2011_8-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-University_of_Pittsburgh_Press,_Siddiqi_&_Andrews,_2011_8-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFAndrewsSiddiqi2011" class="citation book cs1">Andrews, James T.; Siddiqi, Asif A. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=W7oRuOZbb8IC"><i>Into the Cosmos: Space Exploration and Soviet Culture</i></a>. University of Pittsburgh Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-8229-7746-9</bdi><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 19,</span> 2016</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChertok20059–10,_164–165_Vol_1-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChertok20059–10,_164–165_Vol_1_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChertok2005">Chertok 2005</a>, pp. 9–10, 164–165 Vol 1.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESiddiqi20006–14-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESiddiqi20006–14_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSiddiqi2000">Siddiqi 2000</a>, pp. 6–14.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120104012817/http://www.aiaa.org/index.cfm">"Home | AIAA"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aiaa.org/index.cfm">the original</a> on January 4, 2012.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cnn.com/2012/11/26/world/gallery/space-firsts/index.html">"Famous firsts in space"</a>. <i>CNN</i>. Cable News Network. April 9, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 13,</span> 2022</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20201020233802/http://www.astronautix.com/r/r-7.html">Article title</a></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://astronomy.com/news/2020/08/interplanetary-probes-from-behind-the-iron-curtain-the-soviet-venera-program">"Behind the Iron Curtain: The Soviet Venera program"</a>. August 26, 2020.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFBrian_Dunbar2021" class="citation web cs1">Brian Dunbar (April 19, 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220331115352/https://www.nasa.gov/feature/50-years-ago-launch-of-salyut-the-world-s-first-space-station">"50 Years Ago: Launch of Salyut, the World's First Space Station"</a>. <i>NASA.gov</i>. National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nasa.gov/feature/50-years-ago-launch-of-salyut-the-world-s-first-space-station">the original</a> on March 31, 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 13,</span> 2022</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Sheehan-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sheehan_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFSheehan2007" class="citation book cs1">Sheehan, Michael (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=V-Z0kfqPHy8C"><i>The international politics of space</i></a>. London: Routledge. pp. <span class="nowrap">59–</span>61. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-415-39917-3</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Burgess-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Burgess_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFBurgessHall2008" class="citation book cs1">Burgess, Colin; Hall, Rex (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rrdVPtCNL9AC"><i>The first Soviet cosmonaut team: their lives, legacy, and historical impact</i></a>. Berlin: Springer. p. 331. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-387-84823-5</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.roscosmos.ru/index.asp?Lang=ENG">http://www.roscosmos.ru/index.asp?Lang=ENG</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081019125808/http://www.roscosmos.ru/index.asp?Lang=ENG">Archived</a> October 19, 2008, at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mediaoutlet.com/outer-space-dvds-c-1_3_24/russian-right-stuff-dvd-set-space-program-secret-history-2-discs-p-1331.html">"Russian Right Stuff DVD Set Space Program Secret History 2 Discs"</a>. <i>mediaoutlet.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 18,</span> 2021</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESiddiqi20001–2-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESiddiqi20001–2_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSiddiqi2000">Siddiqi 2000</a>, pp. 1–2.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBakerZak20133-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBakerZak20133_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBakerZak2013">Baker & Zak 2013</a>, p. 3.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sirismm.si.edu/EADpdfs/NASM.2000.0015.pdf">"Konstantin Tsiolkovsky Brochures"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 21,</span> 2022</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<cite id="CITEREFWilford1969" class="citation book cs1"><a href="John_Noble_Wilford" title="John Noble Wilford">Wilford, John</a> (1969). <i>We Reach the Moon; the New York Times Story of Man's Greatest Adventure</i>. New York: Bantam Paperbacks. p. 167. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-373-06369-0</bdi> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{isbn}}</code>: Check <code class="cs1-code">isbn</code> value: checksum (help)</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFHarvey2007" class="citation book cs1">Harvey, Brian (2007). <i>Russian Planetary Exploration: History, Development, Legacy and Prospects</i>. Springer.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESiddiqi20002-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESiddiqi20002_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSiddiqi2000">Siddiqi 2000</a>, p. 2.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESiddiqi20003-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESiddiqi20003_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSiddiqi2000">Siddiqi 2000</a>, p. 3.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Zander's 1925 paper, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/nasa_techdoc_19650001039">“Problems of flight by jet propulsion: interplanetary flights,”</a> was translated by NASA. See NASA Technical Translation F-147 (1964); specifically, Section 7: Flight Around a Planet's Satellite for Accelerating or Decelerating Spaceship, pp. 290–292.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESiddiqi20006-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESiddiqi20006_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSiddiqi2000">Siddiqi 2000</a>, p. 6.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChertok2005164_Vol_1-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChertok2005164_Vol_1_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChertok2005164_Vol_1_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChertok2005">Chertok 2005</a>, p. 164 Vol 1.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-RSB_GDL-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-RSB_GDL_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RSB_GDL_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RSB_GDL_30-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFZak" class="citation web cs1">Zak, Anatoly. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.russianspaceweb.com/gdl.html">"Gas Dynamics Laboratory"</a>. <i>Russian Space Web</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 29,</span> 2022</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-W&WRRP-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-W&WRRP_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://weaponsandwarfare.com/2018/11/19/russian-rocket-projectiles-wwii/">"Russian Rocket Projectiles – WWII"</a>. <i>Weapons and Warfare</i>. November 18, 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 29,</span> 2022</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESiddiqi200017-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESiddiqi200017_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESiddiqi200017_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSiddiqi2000">Siddiqi 2000</a>, p. 17.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChertok2005165_Vol_1-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChertok2005165_Vol_1_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChertok2005">Chertok 2005</a>, p. 165 Vol 1.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESiddiqi20004-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESiddiqi20004_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESiddiqi20004_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSiddiqi2000">Siddiqi 2000</a>, p. 4.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Eng060121-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Eng060121_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theengineer.co.uk/content/in-depth/late-great-engineers-sergei-korolev-designated-designer">"Late great engineers: Sergei Korolev – designated designer"</a>. <i>The Engineer</i>. June 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 22,</span> 2022</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESiddiqi20004–5-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESiddiqi20004–5_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSiddiqi2000">Siddiqi 2000</a>, pp. 4–5.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBakerZak20136-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBakerZak20136_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBakerZak20136_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBakerZak20136_37-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBakerZak2013">Baker & Zak 2013</a>, p. 6.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChertok2005166_Vol_1-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChertok2005166_Vol_1_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChertok2005">Chertok 2005</a>, p. 166 Vol 1.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFOkninski2021" class="citation journal cs1">Okninski, Adam (December 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.fpc.2021.11.015">"Hybrid rocket propulsion technology for space transportation revisited – propellant solutions and challenges"</a>. <i>FirePhysChem</i>. <b>1</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">260–</span>271. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021FPhCh...1..260O">2021FPhCh...1..260O</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.fpc.2021.11.015">10.1016/j.fpc.2021.11.015</a></span>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:244899773">244899773</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://weebau.com/rock_rus/gird.htm">"GIRD (Gruppa Isutcheniya Reaktivnovo Dvisheniya)"</a>. <i>WEEBAU</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 26,</span> 2022</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESiddiqi20007–8-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESiddiqi20007–8_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSiddiqi2000">Siddiqi 2000</a>, pp. 7–8.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBakerZak20139-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBakerZak20139_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBakerZak2013">Baker & Zak 2013</a>, p. 9.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChertok2005167_vol_1-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChertok2005167_vol_1_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChertok2005">Chertok 2005</a>, p. 167 vol 1.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFPobedonostsev1977" class="citation journal cs1">Pobedonostsev, Yuri A. (1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ruQqAAAAIAAJ">"On the History of the Development of Solid-Propellant Rockets in the Soviet Union"</a>. <i>NASA Conference Publication</i>. National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Scientific and Technical Information Office: <span class="nowrap">59–</span>63.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://defencyclopedia.com/2016/02/20/greatest-world-war-ii-weapons-the-fearsome-katyusha-rocket-launcher/">"Greatest World War II Weapons : The Fearsome Katyusha Rocket Launcher"</a>. <i>Defencyclopidea</i>. February 20, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 20,</span> 2022</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESiddiqi20009-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESiddiqi20009_46-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESiddiqi20009_46-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSiddiqi2000">Siddiqi 2000</a>, p. 9.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChertok2005167–168_Vol_1-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChertok2005167–168_Vol_1_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChertok2005">Chertok 2005</a>, pp. 167–168 Vol 1.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESiddiqi200010–11-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESiddiqi200010–11_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSiddiqi2000">Siddiqi 2000</a>, pp. 10–11.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESiddiqi200011–14-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESiddiqi200011–14_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSiddiqi2000">Siddiqi 2000</a>, pp. 11–14.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESiddiqi200022-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESiddiqi200022_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSiddiqi2000">Siddiqi 2000</a>, p. 22.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.russianspaceweb.com/tikhonravov.html">"Tikhonravov, Mikhail Klavdievich"</a>. <i>Russian Space Web</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 29,</span> 2022</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChertok2005207_Vol_1-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChertok2005207_Vol_1_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChertok2005">Chertok 2005</a>, p. 207 Vol 1.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChertok2005174,_207_Vol_1-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChertok2005174,_207_Vol_1_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChertok2005">Chertok 2005</a>, pp. 174, 207 Vol 1.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESiddiqi200015-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESiddiqi200015_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSiddiqi2000">Siddiqi 2000</a>, p. 15.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1">"Last of the Wartime Lavochkins". <i><a href="Air_International" title="Air International">Air International</a></i>. <b>11</b> (5). Bromley, Kent: <span class="nowrap">245–</span>246. November 1976.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESiddiqi200015–17-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESiddiqi200015–17_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSiddiqi2000">Siddiqi 2000</a>, pp. 15–17.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESiddiqi200021–22-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESiddiqi200021–22_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSiddiqi2000">Siddiqi 2000</a>, pp. 21–22.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.astronautix.com/c/chelomei.html">"Vladimir Nikolayevich"</a>. <i>astronautix</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 29,</span> 2022</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChertok2005215–369_Vol_1-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChertok2005215–369_Vol_1_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChertok2005">Chertok 2005</a>, pp. 215–369 Vol 1.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChertok200543–71_Vol_2-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChertok200543–71_Vol_2_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChertok2005">Chertok 2005</a>, pp. 43–71 Vol 2.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESiddiqi200024–82-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESiddiqi200024–82_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSiddiqi2000">Siddiqi 2000</a>, pp. 24–82.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFZak" class="citation web cs1">Zak, Anatoly. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.russianspaceweb.com/a4_team_moscow.html">"Official decisions on the deportation of Germans"</a>. <i>Russian Space Web</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 3,</span> 2022</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESiddiqi200037–42-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESiddiqi200037–42_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSiddiqi2000">Siddiqi 2000</a>, pp. 37–42.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFHebestreit" class="citation web cs1">Hebestreit, Gunther. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.institut-rabe.de/index.php/aktuelles?start=7">"Geheimoperation OSSAWIAKIM: Die Verschleppung deutscher Raketenwissenschaftler in die Sowjetunion"</a> [Secret operation Ossawiakim: The relocation of German rocket scientists into the Soviet Union]. <i>Förderverein Institut RaBe e.V</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241204184928/https://www.institut-rabe.de/index.php/aktuelles?start=7">Archived</a> from the original on December 4, 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 29,</span> 2022</span>. <q>An order from Moscow was read to the people who had been awakened from their sleep, in which they were informed that the Zentralwerke were to be relocated to the Soviet Union, which affected both the facilities and equipment and the personnel.</q></cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESiddiqi200040,_63,_83–84-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESiddiqi200040,_63,_83–84_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSiddiqi2000">Siddiqi 2000</a>, pp. 40, 63, 83–84.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-siddiqi2000-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-siddiqi2000_66-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-siddiqi2000_66-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-siddiqi2000_66-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-siddiqi2000_66-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-siddiqi2000_66-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-siddiqi2000_66-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-siddiqi2000_66-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-siddiqi2000_66-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-siddiqi2000_66-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-siddiqi2000_66-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFSiddiqi2000" class="citation book cs1">Siddiqi, Asif Azam (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4408pt1.pdf"><i>Challenge To Apollo: The Soviet Union and the Space Race, 1945–1974</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="Washington%2C_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a>: <a href="NASA" title="NASA">National Aeronautics and Space Administration</a>, NASA History Div. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9780160613050</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061008193942/https://history.nasa.gov/printFriendly/series95.html">Archived</a> from the original on October 8, 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 22,</span> 2022</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFKorolevRiabikov2008" class="citation book cs1">Korolev, Sergei; Riabikov, Vasilii (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/165445"><i>On Work to Create an Artificial Earth Satellite</i></a>. Baturin.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://spp.fas.org/eprint/lindroos_moon1.htm">"The Soviet Manned Lunar Program"</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">M.K. Tikhonravov, <i>Memorandum on an Artificial Earth Satellite,</i> History and Public Policy Program Digital Archive, orig. May 26, 1954, Published in Raushenbakh, editor (1991), 5–15. Edited by Asif Siddiqi and translated by Gary Goldberg. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/165393">https://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/165393</a></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.spacewar.com/reports/The_Historic_Beginnings_Of_The_Space_Arms_Race_999.html">"The Historic Beginnings Of The Space Arms Race"</a>. <i>www.spacewar.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 21,</span> 2024</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFRBTHNovosti2008" class="citation web cs1">RBTH; Novosti, Yury Zaitsev, RIA (November 1, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rbth.com/articles/2008/11/01/311008_space.html">"The historic beginnings of the space arms race"</a>. <i>Russia Beyond</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 21,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{cite web}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)</span></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.popularmechanics.com/space/satellites/a9620/the-hidden-history-of-the-soviet-satellite-killer-16108970/">"The Hidden History of the Soviet Satellite-Killer"</a>. <i>Popular Mechanics</i>. November 1, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 21,</span> 2024</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFAdam_Mann2020" class="citation web cs1">Adam Mann (July 28, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.space.com/vostok-program.html">"The Vostok Program: The Soviet's first crewed spaceflight program"</a>. <i>space.com</i>. Future US, Inc<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 3,</span> 2023</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFAsif_Siddiqi2019" class="citation web cs1">Asif Siddiqi (June 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/air-space-magazine/apollo-why-the-soviets-lost-180972229/">"Why the Soviets Lost the Moon Race"</a>. <i>smithsonianmag.com</i>. Smithsonian Institution<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 3,</span> 2023</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jamesoberg.com/usd10.html">"James Oberg's Pioneering Space"</a>. <i>www.jamesoberg.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 1,</span> 2021</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://space.hobby.ru/baykonur/kerimov.html">"Йепхл Юкхебхв Йепхлнб"</a>. <i>Space.hobby.ru</i> (in Russian)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 19,</span> 2016</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFAsif_Azam_Siddiqi2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Asif_Azam_Siddiqi" title="Asif Azam Siddiqi">Asif Azam Siddiqi</a> (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5pQ9AQAAMAAJ"><i>Challenge to Apollo: The Soviet Union and the Space Race, 1945–1974</i></a>. <a href="NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a>. p. 94. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9780160613050</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201112042927/https://www.nasa.gov/topics/history/features/komarov.html">"NASA – Vladimir Komarov and Soyuz 1"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nasa.gov/topics/history/features/komarov.html">the original</a> on November 12, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 5,</span> 2023</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-moon-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-moon_79-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-moon_79-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-moon_79-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFNicholas_L._Johnson1995" class="citation web cs1">Nicholas L. Johnson (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210216223026/https://www.lpi.usra.edu/publications/books/sovietReach/index.pdf">"The Soviet Reach for The Moon"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>usra.edu</i>. USRA. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lpi.usra.edu/publications/books/sovietReach/index.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on February 16, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 13,</span> 2022</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131208200041/http://www.astronautix.com/craft/lekmplex.htm">"LEK Lunar Expeditionary Complex"</a>. <i>Astronautix.com</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://astronautix.com/craft/lekmplex.htm">the original</a> on December 8, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 19,</span> 2016</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140107164731/http://www.astronautix.com/craft/dlbodule.htm">"DLB Module"</a>. <i>Astronautix.com</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://astronautix.com/craft/dlbodule.htm">the original</a> on January 7, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 19,</span> 2016</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-:1-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_82-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_82-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1959-012A">"Luna 1"</a>. <i>nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov</i>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-:2-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_83-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_83-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1959-014A">"Luna 2"</a>. <i>nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov</i>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1959-008A">"Luna 3"</a>. <i>nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov</i>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1966-006A">"Luna 9"</a>. <i>nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov</i>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1966-027A">"Luna 10"</a>. <i>nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov</i>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1966-094A">"Luna 12"</a>. <i>nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov</i>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1964-016D">"Zond 1"</a>. <i>nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov</i>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1964-078C">"Zond 2"</a>. <i>nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov</i>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1965-056A">"Zond 3"</a>. <i>nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov</i>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/experiment/display.action?id=1965-056A-01">"Zond 3 photography"</a>. <i>nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov</i>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1966-116A">"Luna 13"</a>. <i>nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov</i>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nasa.gov/history/50-years-ago-zond-4-launched-successfully/">"50 Years Ago: Zond 4 launched successfully. - NASA"</a>. March 6, 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 20,</span> 2024</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1968-076A">"Zond 5"</a>. <i>nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov</i>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1969-067A">"Zond 7"</a>. <i>nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov</i>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1970-088A">"Zond 8"</a>. <i>nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov</i>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1969-058A">"Luna 15"</a>. <i>nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov</i>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1970-072A">"Luna 16"</a>. <i>nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov</i>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1970-095D">"Luna 17"</a>. <i>nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov</i>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1972-007A">"Luna 20"</a>. <i>nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov</i>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.popularmechanics.com/space/moon-mars/a36984208/soviet-luna-program-history/">"50 Years Later, the Soviet Union's Luna Program Might Get a Reboot"</a>. <i>Popular Mechanics</i>. July 18, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 20,</span> 2024</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-:3-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_102-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_102-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1970-060A">"Venera 7"</a>. <i>nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov</i>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amusingplanet.com/2021/12/venera-7-first-craft-to-make-controlled.html">"Venera 7, The First Craft to Make Controlled Landing on Another Planet And Send Data From its Surface"</a>. <i>www.amusingplanet.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 20,</span> 2024</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://weebau.com/satplan/venera%207.htm">"Venera 7"</a>. <i>weebau.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 20,</span> 2024</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mentallandscape.com/V_Lavochkin1.htm">"Plumbing the Atmosphere of Venus"</a>. <i>mentallandscape.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 20,</span> 2024</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1972-021A">"Venera 8"</a>. <i>nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov</i>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1975-050A">"Venera 9"</a>. <i>nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov</i>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1975-050D">"Venera 9 descent craft"</a>. <i>nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov</i>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/imgcat/html/object_page/v10_lander_proc.html">"Venus - Venera 10 Lander"</a>. <i>nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov</i>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.skyatnightmagazine.com/space-missions/history-search-life-venus">"A history of the search for life on Venus"</a>. <i>www.skyatnightmagazine.com</i>. September 14, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 20,</span> 2024</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/heasarc/missions/venera1112.html">"The Venera 11 & 12 probes to Venus"</a>. <i>heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 20,</span> 2024</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1978-084D">"Venera 11 descent craft"</a>. <i>nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov</i>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-:4-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_113-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_113-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1981-106D">"Venera 13"</a>. <i>nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov</i>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pages.uoregon.edu/jschombe/ast121/lectures/surface_venus.html">"Surface of Venus"</a>. <i>pages.uoregon.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 19,</span> 2024</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mentallandscape.com/V_Venera11.htm">"Drilling into the Surface of Venus"</a>. <i>mentallandscape.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 19,</span> 2024</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1981-110A">"Venera 14"</a>. <i>nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov</i>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1984-125A">"Vega 1"</a>. <i>nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov</i>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1984-128A">"Vega 2"</a>. <i>nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov</i>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/vega-2/in-depth/">"In Depth | Vega 2"</a>. <i>NASA Solar System Exploration</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 20,</span> 2024</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFHarland1999" class="citation book cs1">Harland, David M. (1999). <i>The Soviet Space Program: The History of the U.S.S.R.'s Space Achievements</i>. Springer.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1971-045A">"Mars 2"</a>. <i>nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov</i>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1971-049F">"Mars 3"</a>. <i>nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov</i>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1973-049A">"Mars 5"</a>. <i>nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov</i>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1973-047A">"Mars 4"</a>. <i>nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov</i>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-:0-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_125-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_125-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nasa.gov/missions/station/50-years-ago-launch-of-salyut-the-worlds-first-space-station/">"50 Years Ago: Launch of Salyut, the World's First Space Station - NASA"</a>. April 19, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 19,</span> 2024</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1971-032A">"Salyut 1"</a>. <i>nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov</i>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://russianspaceweb.com/spacecraft_manned_salyut.html">"Russia's early space stations (1969-1985)"</a>. <i>russianspaceweb.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 19,</span> 2024</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1973-017A">"Salyut 2"</a>. <i>nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov</i>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.russianspaceweb.com/almaz_ops2.html">"Salyut-3 (OPS-2) space station"</a>. <i>www.russianspaceweb.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 19,</span> 2024</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1982-033A">"Salyut 7"</a>. <i>nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov</i>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://airandspace.si.edu/stories/editorial/first-space-stations">"The First Space Stations"</a>. <i>airandspace.si.edu</i>. August 15, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 20,</span> 2024</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://prezi.com/vibdzluxed9y/the-soviet-space-program">"The Soviet Space Program by Eric Mariscal"</a>. Prezi.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 8,</span> 2022</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://tass.com/history">"TASS history"</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/us-history/postwarera/1950s-america/a/the-start-of-the-space-race">"The start of the Space Race (article)"</a>. Khan Academy. October 1, 1958<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 8,</span> 2022</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-ebooks.ohiolink.edu-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ebooks.ohiolink.edu_135-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ebooks.ohiolink.edu_135-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ebooks.ohiolink.edu/xtf-ebc/view?docId=tei/sv2/9781461430520/9781461430520.xml&query=&brand=default">"OhioLINK Institution Selection"</a>. <i>Ebooks.ohiolink.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 19,</span> 2016</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFDominic_Phelan2013" class="citation web cs1">Dominic Phelan (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220513182442/https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/bfm:978-1-4614-3052-0/1.pdf?error=cookies_not_supported&code=415934f9-1e4a-4c5a-9cc3-8396837c047e">"Cold War Space Sleuths"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>springer.com</i>. Praxis Publishing. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/bfm%3A978-1-4614-3052-0%2F1.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on May 13, 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 13,</span> 2022</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-High_Frontier-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-High_Frontier_137-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFLaunius2002" class="citation book cs1">Launius, Roger (2002). <i>To Reach the High Frontier</i>. <a href="University_Press_of_Kentucky" title="University Press of Kentucky">University Press of Kentucky</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">7–</span>10. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-8131-2245-7</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-First-Spacewalk-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-First-Spacewalk_138-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFRinconLachmann2014" class="citation web cs1">Rincon, Paul; Lachmann, Michael (October 13, 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141014061848/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/special/2014/newsspec_9035/index.html">"The First Spacewalk How the first human to take steps in outer space nearly didn't return to Earth"</a>. <i>BBC News</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/special/2014/newsspec_9035/index.html">the original</a> on October 14, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 19,</span> 2014</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFJoel_Achenbach2012" class="citation news cs1">Joel Achenbach (January 3, 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/achenblog/post/spaceship-earth-the-first-photos/2012/01/03/gIQAzXF5XP_blog.html">"Spaceship Earth: The first photos"</a>. <i><a href="The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 16,</span> 2020</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFJames_E_Oberg1981" class="citation book cs1"><a href="James_Oberg" title="James Oberg">James E Oberg</a> (1981). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/redstarinorbit00jame"><i>Red Star in Orbit</i></a></span>. Random House. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0394514291</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sma.nasa.gov/SignificantIncidents/assets/tragic-tangle.pdf">Tragic Tangle</a>, <i>System Failure Case Studies</i>, NASA</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nasa.gov/topics/history/features/komarov.html">Vladimir Komarov and Soyuz 1</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201112042927/https://www.nasa.gov/topics/history/features/komarov.html">Archived</a> November 12, 2020, at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, NASA</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/world/monitoring/media_reports/705808.stm">"Media Reports | Soviet rocket blast left 48 dead"</a>. BBC News<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 19,</span> 2016</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFSchmemann1983" class="citation news cs1">Schmemann, Serge (October 12, 1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1983/10/12/world/soyuz-accident-quietly-conceded.html">"Soyuz Accident Quietly Conceded"</a>. <i>New York Times</i>. United States<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 20,</span> 2022</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.buran.su/buranvssts-comparison.php#:~:text=But%20Buran%20is%20a%20little,off%20whereas%20Buran%20has%20no.&text=So%20the%20engines%20are%20on,nearly%20the%20same%20of%20STS.">"Buran Space Shuttle vs STS – Comparison"</a>. <i>www.buran.su</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 22,</span> 2021</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFZak2013" class="citation web cs1">Zak, Anatoly (November 19, 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.popularmechanics.com/science/space/rockets/did-the-soviets-actually-build-a-better-space-shuttle-16176311">"Did the USSR Build a Better Space Shuttle?"</a>. <i>Popular Mechanics</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 22,</span> 2021</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFZak2008" class="citation news cs1">Zak, Anatoly (November 20, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/sci/tech/7738489.stm">"Buran – the Soviet space shuttle"</a>. BBC.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFWindrem2008" class="citation web cs1">Windrem, Robert (February 11, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna18686550">"How the Soviet space shuttle fizzled"</a>. <i><a href="NBC_News" title="NBC News">NBC News</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 4,</span> 2023</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.russianspaceweb.com/buran.html">"Buran reusable shuttle"</a>. <i>www.russianspaceweb.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 22,</span> 2021</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-starwars-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-starwars_150-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFKonstantin_Lantratov" class="citation web cs1">Konstantin Lantratov. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.buran.ru/htm/str163.htm">"Звёздные войны, которых не было"</a> [Star Wars that didn't happen].</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-grondine-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-grondine_151-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFEd_Grondine" class="citation web cs1">Ed Grondine. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100102201428/http://astronautix.com/craft/polyus.htm">"Polyus"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.astronautix.com/craft/polyus.htm">the original</a> on January 2, 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 15,</span> 2009</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFZak2013" class="citation journal cs1">Zak, Anatoly (February 5, 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.russianspaceweb.com/spacecraft_planetary_plans.html">"Planetary spacecraft"</a>. <i>Russian Space Web</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 13,</span> 2016</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2></div>

<ul><li>Andrews, James T.: <i>Red Cosmos: K. E. Tsiolkovskii, Grandfather of Soviet Rocketry</i>. (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 2009)</li>

<li>Brzezinski, Matthew: <i>Red Moon Rising: Sputnik and the Hidden Rivalries that Ignited the Space Age</i>. (Holt Paperbacks, 2008)</li>

<li>Burgess, Colin; French, Francis: <i><a href="Into_That_Silent_Sea" title="Into That Silent Sea">Into That Silent Sea: Trailblazers of the Space Era</a></i>, 1961–1965. (University of Nebraska Press, 2007)</li>

<li>Burgess, Colin; French, Francis: <i><a href="In_the_Shadow_of_the_Moon_(book)" title="In the Shadow of the Moon (book)">In the Shadow of the Moon: A Challenging Journey to Tranquility</a></i>, 1965–1969. (University of Nebraska Press, 2007)</li>

<li>Harford, James: <i>Korolev: How One Man Masterminded the Soviet Drive to Beat America to the Moon</i>. (John Wiley & Sons, 1997)</li>

<li><a href="Asif_Azam_Siddiqi" title="Asif Azam Siddiqi">Siddiqi, Asif A.</a>: <i>Challenge to Apollo: The Soviet Union and the Space Race, 1945–1974</i>. (Washington, D.C.: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 2000)</li>

<li>Siddiqi, Asif A.: <i>The Red Rockets' Glare: Spaceflight and the Soviet Imagination, 1857–1957</i>. (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010)</li>

<li>Siddiqi, Asif A.; Andrews, James T. (eds.): <i>Into the Cosmos: Space Exploration and Soviet Culture</i>. (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2011)</li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFBakerZak2013" class="citation book cs1">Baker, David; Zak, Anatoly (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.apple.com/au/book/race-for-space-1-dawn-of-the-space-age/id634833085"><i>Race for Space 1: Dawn of the Space Age</i></a>. RHK<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 20,</span> 2022</span>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFChertok2005" class="citation book cs1">Chertok, Boris (January 31, 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nasa.gov/connect/ebooks/rockets_people_vol1_detail.html"><i>Rockets and People</i></a> (Volumes 1–4 ed.). <a href="NASA" title="NASA">National Aeronautics and Space Administration</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 29,</span> 2022</span>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFRödel2018" class="citation book cs1">Rödel, Eberhard (2018). <i>The Soviet space program: first steps: 1941–1953</i>. Atglen, PA: Schiffer Publishing Ltd. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0764355394</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFReichl2019" class="citation book cs1">Reichl, Eugen (2019). <i>The Soviet Space Program: The Lunar Mission Years: 1959–1976</i> (1st ed.). Schiffer Military History. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-7643-5675-9</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFReichl2019" class="citation book cs1">Reichl, Eugen (2019). <i>The Soviet space program: the N1, the Soviet Moon rocket</i>. Atglen, PA: Schiffer Publishing. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0764358555</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFBurgessHall2009" class="citation book cs1">Burgess, Colin; Hall, Rex (2009). <i>The First Soviet Cosmonaut Team: Their Lives, Legacy, and Historical Impact</i>. Praxis. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-387-84824-2</bdi>.</cite></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060705030049/http://www.russianspaceweb.com/index.html">Russian Space Web</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mentallandscape.com/V_Venus.htm">Soviet Exploration of Venus</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mentallandscape.com/S_Sputnik.htm">Sputnik: 50 Years Ago</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120923131120/http://www.zarya.info/index.htm">Zarya – Soviet, Russian and International Space Flight</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151129224805/http://www.cosmos-club.org/journals/1998/harford.html">Korolev, Mastermind of the Soviet Space Program</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fas.org/spp/eprint/lindroos_moon1.htm">Soviet crewed lunar program</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kosmo-museum.ru/?locale=en">The Cosmonautics Memorial Museum in Moscow</a></li></ul>

</div>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Soviet_and_Russian_space_program317" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><div id="Soviet_and_Russian_space_program317" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"> and <a href="Roscosmos" title="Roscosmos">Russian space program</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div>

<ul><li><a href="Roscosmos" title="Roscosmos">Roscosmos</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Launch sites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Baikonur_Cosmodrome" title="Baikonur Cosmodrome">Baikonur Cosmodrome</a> <small>(in <a href="Kazakhstan" title="Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a>)</small></li>

<li><a href="Dombarovsky_(air_base)" title="Dombarovsky (air base)">Dombarovsky</a></li>

<li><a href="Kapustin_Yar" title="Kapustin Yar">Kapustin Yar</a></li>

<li><a href="Plesetsk_Cosmodrome" title="Plesetsk Cosmodrome">Plesetsk Cosmodrome</a></li>

<li><a href="Svobodny_Cosmodrome" title="Svobodny Cosmodrome">Svobodny Cosmodrome</a> <small>(defunct)</small></li>

<li><a href="Vostochny_Cosmodrome" title="Vostochny Cosmodrome">Vostochny Cosmodrome</a></li></ul>

</div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="8" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Launch vehicles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Angara_(rocket_family)" title="Angara (rocket family)">Angara</a></li>

<li><a href="Proton_(rocket_family)" title="Proton (rocket family)">Proton</a></li>

<li><a href="Soyuz_(rocket_family)" title="Soyuz (rocket family)">Soyuz</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Human_spaceflight" title="Human spaceflight">Human spaceflight</a><br>programs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Past</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Vostok_programme" title="Vostok programme">Vostok</a></li>

<li><a href="Voskhod_programme" title="Voskhod programme">Voskhod</a></li>

<li><a href="Salyut_program" class="mw-redirect" title="Salyut program">Salyut</a></li>

<li><a href="Almaz" title="Almaz">Almaz</a> <small>(incorporated into Salyut program)</small> / <a href="TKS_(spacecraft)" title="TKS (spacecraft)">TKS</a></li>

<li><a href="Apollo%E2%80%93Soyuz" title="Apollo–Soyuz">Soyuz-Apollo</a> <small>(joint)</small></li>

<li><a href="Shuttle%E2%80%93Mir_Program" class="mw-redirect" title="Shuttle–Mir Program">Shuttle–Mir</a> <small>(joint)</small></li>

<li><a href="Energia_(rocket)" title="Energia (rocket)">Energia</a> / <a href="Buran_programme" title="Buran programme">Buran</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cancelled</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Zond_program" title="Zond program">Zond (7K-L1)</a> <small>(Moon flyby)</small></li>

<li><a href="Soviet_crewed_lunar_programs" title="Soviet crewed lunar programs">Soviet crewed lunar programs</a> <small>(Moon landing)</small></li>

<li><a href="Zvezda_(moonbase)" title="Zvezda (moonbase)">Zvezda</a> <small>(moonbase)</small></li>

<li><a href="TMK" title="TMK">TMK</a> <small>(Mars/Venus flyby)</small></li>

<li><a href="Mikoyan-Gurevich_MiG-105" title="Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-105">Spiral</a></li>

<li><a href="Military_Soyuz#Soyuz_7K-VI_Zvezda" title="Military Soyuz">Zvezda</a></li>

<li><a href="Zarya_(spacecraft)" class="mw-redirect" title="Zarya (spacecraft)">Zarya</a></li>

<li><a href="Kliper" title="Kliper">Kliper</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Active</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="International_Space_Station" title="International Space Station">International Space Station</a> <small>(joint)</small>

<ul><li><a href="Russian_Orbital_Segment" title="Russian Orbital Segment">Russian Orbital Segment</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Soyuz_programme" title="Soyuz programme">Soyuz</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In development</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Robotic_spacecraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Robotic spacecraft">Robotic</a><br>programs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Past</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Dnepropetrovsk_Sputnik" title="Dnepropetrovsk Sputnik">Dnepropetrovsk Sputnik</a> (1961–1982)</li>

<li><a href="Prognoz_programme" title="Prognoz programme">Prognoz</a> (1972–1996)</li>

<li><a href="Venera" title="Venera">Venera</a> (1961–1985)</li>

<li><a href="Astron_(spacecraft)" title="Astron (spacecraft)">Astron</a> (1983–1991)</li>

<li><a href="Phobos_program" title="Phobos program">Phobos</a> <small>(failed)</small> (1988–1989)</li>

<li><a href="Granat" title="Granat">Granat</a> (1989–1998)</li>

<li><a href="Gamma_(satellite)" title="Gamma (satellite)">Gamma</a> (1990–1992)</li>

<li><a href="Mars_96" title="Mars 96">Mars 96</a> <small>(failed)</small> (1996)</li>

<li><a href="Resurs-DK_No.1" title="Resurs-DK No.1">Resurs-DK No.1</a> (2006–2016)</li>

<li><a href="CORONAS_programme" title="CORONAS programme">CORONAS</a> (1994–2009)</li>

<li><a href="Fobos-Grunt" title="Fobos-Grunt">Fobos-Grunt</a> <small>(failed)</small> (2011)</li>

<li><a href="Spektr-R" title="Spektr-R">Spektr-R</a> (2011–2019)</li>

<li><a href="Luna_25" title="Luna 25">Luna 25</a> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(failed)</span> (2023)</li></ul>

<ul><li><i><a href="Kazachok" title="Kazachok">Kazachok</a></i></li></ul>

<li><a href="Elektro%E2%80%93L" title="Elektro–L">Elektro–L</a></li>

<li><a href="Trace_Gas_Orbiter" title="Trace Gas Orbiter">Trace Gas Orbiter</a> <small>(joint)</small></li>

<li><a href="Meteor_(satellite)" title="Meteor (satellite)">Meteor-M</a></li>

<li><a href="Resurs-P" title="Resurs-P">Resurs-P</a></li>

<li><a href="Spektr-RG" title="Spektr-RG">Spektr-RG</a></li></ul>

<li><a href="Spektr-UV" title="Spektr-UV">Spektr-UV</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Communications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Sputnik_programme" class="mw-redirect" title="Sputnik programme">Sputnik</a> (begun 1957)

<ul><li><a href="Sputnik_1" title="Sputnik 1">Sputnik 1</a></li>

<li><a href="Sputnik_2" title="Sputnik 2">Sputnik 2</a></li>

<li><a href="Sputnik_3" title="Sputnik 3">Sputnik 3</a></li>

<li><a href="Sputnik_41" title="Sputnik 41">Sputnik 41</a></li>

<li><a href="Sputnik_99" title="Sputnik 99">Sputnik 99</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Soviet_Deep_Space_Network" title="Soviet Deep Space Network">Deep Space Network</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Baikal_(rocket_booster)" title="Baikal (rocket booster)">Baikal-Angara</a></li>

<li><a href="Laplace-P" title="Laplace-P">Laplace-P</a></li>

<li><a href="Mars-Grunt" title="Mars-Grunt">Mars-Grunt</a></li>

<li><a href="Mercury-P" title="Mercury-P">Mercury-P</a></li>

<li><a href="Orbital_Piloted_Assembly_and_Experiment_Complex" title="Orbital Piloted Assembly and Experiment Complex">OPSEK</a></li>

<li><a href="Spektr-M" title="Spektr-M">Spektr-M</a></li>

<li><a href="Venera-D" class="mw-redirect" title="Venera-D">Venera-D</a></li>

<li><a href="Sfera_(satellite_constellation)" title="Sfera (satellite constellation)">Sfera</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Images and artwork</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Mission_patch" title="Mission patch">Mission patches</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="List_of_cosmonauts" title="List of cosmonauts">List of cosmonauts</a></li>

<li><a href="Astronaut_ranks_and_positions" title="Astronaut ranks and positions">Cosmonaut ranks and positions</a>

<ul><li><a href="Pilot-Cosmonaut_of_the_Russian_Federation" title="Pilot-Cosmonaut of the Russian Federation">Pilot-Cosmonaut of the Russian Federation</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Soviet_space_dogs" title="Soviet space dogs">Soviet space dogs</a>

<ul><li><a href="Laika" title="Laika">Laika</a></li>

<li><a href="Belka_and_Strelka" title="Belka and Strelka">Belka and Strelka</a></li>

<li><a href="Soviet_space_dogs#Veterok_and_Ugolyok" title="Soviet space dogs">Veterok and Ugolyok</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Ivan_Ivanovich_(Vostok_programme)" title="Ivan Ivanovich (Vostok programme)">Ivan Ivanovich</a></li>

<li><a href="Soviet_space_exploration_history_on_Soviet_stamps" title="Soviet space exploration history on Soviet stamps">Soviet space exploration history on Soviet stamps</a></li>

<li><a href="Cosmonauts_Alley" title="Cosmonauts Alley">Cosmonauts Alley</a></li>

<li><a href="Monument_to_the_Conquerors_of_Space" title="Monument to the Conquerors of Space">Monument to the Conquerors of Space</a>

<ul><li><a href="Memorial_Museum_of_Cosmonautics" title="Memorial Museum of Cosmonautics">Memorial Museum of Cosmonautics</a></li></ul></li>

<li><i><a href="Out_of_the_Present" title="Out of the Present">Out of the Present</a></i> (1995 documentary)</li>

<li><i><a href="Mission_to_Mir" title="Mission to Mir">Mission to Mir</a></i> (1997 documentary)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div>

<ul><li>See also: <a href="Space_industry_of_Russia" title="Space industry of Russia">Space industry of Russia</a></li>

<li><a href="Russian_Aerospace_Defence_Forces" title="Russian Aerospace Defence Forces">Russian Aerospace Defence Forces</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Soviet_and_Russian_government_human_spaceflight_programs135" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Soviet_and_Russian_government_human_spaceflight_programs135" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"> and <a href="Roscosmos" title="Roscosmos">Russian</a> government human spaceflight programs</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Active</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Soyuz_programme" title="Soyuz programme">Soyuz</a></li>

<li><a href="International_Space_Station" title="International Space Station">ISS</a> <small> (joint) </small>

<ul><li><a href="Russian_Orbital_Segment" title="Russian Orbital Segment">Russian Orbital Segment</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Past</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Vostok_programme" title="Vostok programme">Vostok</a></li>

<li><a href="Voskhod_programme" title="Voskhod programme">Voskhod</a></li>

<li><a href="Salyut_programme" title="Salyut programme">Salyut</a></li>

<li><a href="Almaz" title="Almaz">Almaz</a> <small>(incorporated into Salyut program)</small> / <a href="TKS_(spacecraft)" title="TKS (spacecraft)">TKS</a></li>

<li><a href="Apollo%E2%80%93Soyuz_Test_Project" class="mw-redirect" title="Apollo–Soyuz Test Project">Apollo–Soyuz</a> <small> (joint) </small></li>

<ul><li><a href="Shuttle%E2%80%93Mir_program" title="Shuttle–Mir program">Shuttle-Mir</a> <small> (joint) </small></li></ul></li></ul>

<ul><li><i>Moon: </i> <a href="Zond_program" title="Zond program">Zond (7K-L1)</a>, <a href="Soviet_human_lunar_programs" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet human lunar programs">N1-L3</a>, <a href="LK-700" title="LK-700">LK-700</a>, <a href="Zvezda_(moonbase)" title="Zvezda (moonbase)">Zvezda</a></li>

<li><i>Interplanetary: </i> <a href="TMK" title="TMK">TMK</a>, <a href="Aelita_project" title="Aelita project">Aelita</a>, <a href="Martian_Piloted_Complex" title="Martian Piloted Complex">Martian Piloted Complex</a></li>

<li><i>Spaceplanes: </i> <a href="Mikoyan-Gurevich_MiG-105" title="Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-105">Spiral</a>, <a href="Energia_(rocket)" title="Energia (rocket)">Energia</a> / <a href="Buran_programme" title="Buran programme">Buran</a>, <a href="MAKS_(spacecraft)" title="MAKS (spacecraft)">MAKS</a>, <a href="Kliper" title="Kliper">Kliper</a>, <a href="LKS_(Spaceship)" class="mw-redirect" title="LKS (Spaceship)">LKS</a>, <a href="Tupolev_Tu-2000" title="Tupolev Tu-2000">Tupolev Tu-2000</a></li>

<li><i>Capsules: </i> <a href="Military_Soyuz#Soyuz_7K-VI_Zvezda" title="Military Soyuz">Zvezda</a>, <a href="Zarya_(spacecraft)" class="mw-redirect" title="Zarya (spacecraft)">Zarya</a></li>

<li><i>Space Stations: </i> <a href="Orbital_Piloted_Assembly_and_Experiment_Complex" title="Orbital Piloted Assembly and Experiment Complex">OPSEK</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="List_of_Soyuz_missions" title="List of Soyuz missions">List of Soyuz missions</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_Soviet_human_spaceflight_missions" title="List of Soviet human spaceflight missions">List of Soviet human spaceflight missions</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_Russian_human_spaceflight_missions" title="List of Russian human spaceflight missions">List of Russian human spaceflight missions</a></li>

<li><a href="Astronaut_ranks_and_positions" title="Astronaut ranks and positions">Cosmonaut ranks and positions</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Soviet_space_probes129" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><div id="Soviet_space_probes129" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Earth satellites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Kosmos_(satellite)" title="Kosmos (satellite)">Kosmos</a></li>

<li><a href="Molniya_(satellite)" title="Molniya (satellite)">Molniya</a></li>

<li><a href="Zenit_(satellite)" title="Zenit (satellite)">Zenit</a></li>

<li><a href="GLONASS" title="GLONASS">GLONASS</a></li>

<li><a href="Meteor_(satellite)" title="Meteor (satellite)">Meteor</a></li></ul>

</div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Space observatories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Orion_(spacecraft_instrument)" class="mw-redirect" title="Orion (spacecraft instrument)">Orion</a></li>

<li><i><a href="Astron_(spacecraft)" title="Astron (spacecraft)">Astron</a></i></li>

<li><a href="Granat" title="Granat">Granat</a></li>

<li><a href="Prognoz_(satellite)" class="mw-redirect" title="Prognoz (satellite)">Prognoz</a></li>

<li><a href="RELIKT-1" title="RELIKT-1">RELIKT-1</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Moon" title="Moon">Moon</a> exploration</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Luna_programme" title="Luna programme">Luna</a> (<a href="Lunokhod_programme" title="Lunokhod programme">Lunokhod rovers</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Zond_program" title="Zond program">Zond program</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Venus" title="Venus">Venus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Venera" title="Venera">Venera</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Phobos_program" title="Phobos program">Fobos</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Design family</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Soviet_and_Russian_launch_vehicles134" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Soviet_and_Russian_launch_vehicles134" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"> and <a href="Roscosmos" title="Roscosmos">Russian</a> <a href="Launch_vehicle" title="Launch vehicle">launch vehicles</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Active</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Angara_(rocket_family)" title="Angara (rocket family)">Angara</a>

<li><a href="Soyuz-2" title="Soyuz-2">Soyuz-2</a>

<ul><li><a href="Proton-M" title="Proton-M">Proton-M</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In development</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Irtysh_(rocket)" title="Irtysh (rocket)">Irtysh</a></li>

<li><a href="Yenisei_(rocket)" title="Yenisei (rocket)">Yenisei</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Retired</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Dnepr_(rocket)" title="Dnepr (rocket)">Dnepr</a></li>

<li><a href="Energia_(rocket)" title="Energia (rocket)">Energia</a></li>

<li><a href="Kosmos_(rocket_family)" title="Kosmos (rocket family)">Kosmos</a>

<li><a href="Molniya_(rocket)" title="Molniya (rocket)">Molniya</a>

<li><a href="Polyot_(rocket)" title="Polyot (rocket)">Polyot</a></li>

<li><a href="Soyuz_(rocket_family)" title="Soyuz (rocket family)">Soyuz</a>

<ul><li><a href="Soyuz_(rocket)" title="Soyuz (rocket)">original</a></li>

<li><a href="Soyuz/Vostok" title="Soyuz/Vostok">Soyuz/Vostok</a></li>

<li><a href="Sputnik_(rocket)" title="Sputnik (rocket)">Sputnik</a></li>

<li><a href="Voskhod_(rocket)" title="Voskhod (rocket)">Voskhod</a></li>

<li><a href="Vostok_(rocket_family)" title="Vostok (rocket family)">Vostok</a>

<ul><li><a href="Shtil'" title="Shtil'">Shtil'</a></li>

<li><a href="Volna" title="Volna">Volna</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Start-1" title="Start-1">Start-1</a></li>

<li><a href="Tsyklon" title="Tsyklon">Tsyklon</a>

<ul><li><a href="Tsyklon" title="Tsyklon">original</a></li>

<li><a href="Proton-K" title="Proton-K">Proton-K</a></li>

<li><a href="Rokot" title="Rokot">Rokot</a></li>

<li><a href="Strela_(rocket)" title="Strela (rocket)">Strela</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Zenit_(rocket_family)" title="Zenit (rocket family)">Zenit</a>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cancelled (no launch attempts)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Tsyklon-4" title="Tsyklon-4">Tsyklon-4</a></li>

<li><a href="Proton_(rocket_family)" title="Proton (rocket family)">Proton</a>

<ul><li><a href="Proton_Light" class="mw-redirect" title="Proton Light">Light</a></li>

<li><a href="Proton_Medium" class="mw-redirect" title="Proton Medium">Medium</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Spacecraft_missions_to_Jupiter403" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><div id="Spacecraft_missions_to_Jupiter403" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Exploration_of_Jupiter" title="Exploration of Jupiter">Spacecraft missions</a> to <a href="Jupiter" title="Jupiter">Jupiter</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Flybys</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Pioneer_program" title="Pioneer program">Pioneer program</a>

<ul><li><i><a href="Pioneer_10" title="Pioneer 10">Pioneer 10</a></i></li>

<li><a href="Voyager_program" title="Voyager program">Voyager program</a>

<ul><li><i><a href="Voyager_1" title="Voyager 1">Voyager 1</a></i><sup>‡</sup></li>

<li><a href="Ulysses_(spacecraft)" title="Ulysses (spacecraft)"><i>Ulysses</i></a><sup>‡</sup></li>

<li><i><a href="Cassini%E2%80%93Huygens" title="Cassini–Huygens">Cassini–Huygens</a></i><sup>‡</sup></li>

<li><i><a href="New_Horizons" title="New Horizons">New Horizons</a></i><sup>‡</sup></li></ul>

</div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="8" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Orbiters</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Galileo_project" title="Galileo project"><i>Galileo</i></a></li>

<li><a href="Juno_(spacecraft)" title="Juno (spacecraft)"><i>Juno</i></a> (active)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Atmospheric probes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Galileo_Probe" class="mw-redirect" title="Galileo Probe"><i>Galileo</i> Probe</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">En route</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><i><a href="Jupiter_Icy_Moons_Explorer" title="Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer">Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer</a></i> (JUICE) (2023, insertion 2031)</li>

<li><i><a href="Europa_Clipper" title="Europa Clipper">Europa Clipper</a></i> (2024, insertion 2030)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Planned missions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><i><a href="Tianwen-4" title="Tianwen-4">Tianwen-4</a></i> (2029, insertion 2035)</li>

<li><a href="Solar_Polar_Orbit_Observatory" title="Solar Polar Orbit Observatory">Solar Polar Orbit Observatory</a><sup>‡</sup> (2029)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Proposed missions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><i><a href="Shensuo_(spacecraft)" title="Shensuo (spacecraft)">Shensuo</a></i><sup>‡</sup> (2020s)</li>

<li><a href="Europa_Lander" title="Europa Lander">Europa Lander</a> (2025)</li>

<li><i><a href="Interstellar_Probe_(spacecraft)" title="Interstellar Probe (spacecraft)">Interstellar Probe</a></i><sup>‡</sup> (2036)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cancelled<br>or not developed</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Europa_Jupiter_System_Mission_%E2%80%93_Laplace" title="Europa Jupiter System Mission – Laplace">Europa Jupiter System Mission-Laplace</a>

<ul><li><a href="Jupiter_Europa_Orbiter" title="Jupiter Europa Orbiter">Jupiter Europa Orbiter</a></li>

<li><a href="Jupiter_Ganymede_Orbiter" title="Jupiter Ganymede Orbiter">Jupiter Ganymede Orbiter</a></li>

<li><a href="Jupiter_Magnetospheric_Orbiter" title="Jupiter Magnetospheric Orbiter">Jupiter Magnetospheric Orbiter</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Europa_Orbiter" title="Europa Orbiter">Europa Orbiter</a></li>

<li><a href="Innovative_Interstellar_Explorer" title="Innovative Interstellar Explorer">Innovative Interstellar Explorer</a></li>

<li><a href="Io_Volcano_Observer" title="Io Volcano Observer">Io Volcano Observer</a></li>

<li><a href="Jovian_Europa_Orbiter" title="Jovian Europa Orbiter">Jovian Europa Orbiter</a></li>

<li><a href="Jupiter_Icy_Moons_Orbiter" title="Jupiter Icy Moons Orbiter">Jupiter Icy Moons Orbiter</a></li>

<li><a href="Laplace-P" title="Laplace-P">Laplace-P</a></li>

<li><a href="New_Horizons_2" title="New Horizons 2">New Horizons 2</a></li>

<li><a href="OKEANOS" title="OKEANOS">OKEANOS</a></li>

<li><a href="Pioneer_H" title="Pioneer H">Pioneer H</a></li>

<li><a href="SMARA_(spacecraft)" title="SMARA (spacecraft)">SMARA</a></li>

<li><i><a href="Trident_(spacecraft)" title="Trident (spacecraft)">Trident</a></i></li>

<li><a href="Tsiolkovsky_mission" class="mw-redirect" title="Tsiolkovsky mission">Tsiolkovsky mission</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Exploration_of_Jupiter" title="Exploration of Jupiter">Exploration of Jupiter</a></li>

<li><a href="Atmosphere_of_Jupiter" title="Atmosphere of Jupiter">Atmosphere of Jupiter</a></li>

<li><a href="Magnetosphere_of_Jupiter" title="Magnetosphere of Jupiter">Magnetosphere of Jupiter</a></li>

<li><a href="Moons_of_Jupiter" title="Moons of Jupiter">Moons of Jupiter</a>

<ul><li><a href="Exploration_of_Io" title="Exploration of Io">Exploration</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Europa_(moon)" title="Europa (moon)">Europa</a></li>

<li><a href="Ganymede_(moon)" title="Ganymede (moon)">Ganymede</a></li>

<li><a href="Callisto_(moon)" title="Callisto (moon)">Callisto</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Rings_of_Jupiter" title="Rings of Jupiter">Rings of Jupiter</a></li>

<li><a href="Deep_Space_Network" class="mw-redirect" title="Deep Space Network">Deep Space Network</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_missions_to_the_outer_planets" title="List of missions to the outer planets">Missions to outer planets</a></li>

<li><a href="Colonization_of_the_outer_Solar_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Colonization of the outer Solar System">Colonization of the outer Solar System</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div>Missions are ordered by launch date. Sign <sup>†</sup> indicates failure en route or before intended mission data returned. <sup>‡</sup> indicates use of the planet as a <a href="Gravity_assist" title="Gravity assist">gravity assist</a> en route to another destination.</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Soviet_Union_topics778" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Soviet_Union_topics778" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li><a href="Bibliography_of_the_Russian_Revolution_and_Civil_War" title="Bibliography of the Russian Revolution and Civil War">Bibliography of the Russian Revolution and Civil War</a></li>

<li><a href="Bibliography_of_Stalinism_and_the_Soviet_Union" title="Bibliography of Stalinism and the Soviet Union">Bibliography of Stalinism and the Soviet Union</a></li>

<li><a href="Bibliography_of_the_Post_Stalinist_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibliography of the Post Stalinist Soviet Union">Bibliography of the Post Stalinist Soviet Union</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="History_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="History of the Soviet Union">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Index_of_Soviet_Union%E2%80%93related_articles" title="Index of Soviet Union–related articles">Index of Soviet Union–related articles</a></li>

<li><a href="Outline_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Outline of the Soviet Union">Outline</a></li>

<li><a href="Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a>

<ul><li><a href="February_Revolution" title="February Revolution">February</a></li>

<li><a href="October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">October</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Russian_Civil_War" title="Russian Civil War">Russian Civil War</a></li>

<li><a href="Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic" title="Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic">Russian SFSR</a></li>

<li><a href="Treaty_on_the_Creation_of_the_Union_of_Soviet_Socialist_Republics" title="Treaty on the Creation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics">Creation treaty</a></li>

<li><a href="New_Economic_Policy" title="New Economic Policy">New Economic Policy</a></li>

<li><a href="Stalinism" title="Stalinism">Stalinism</a></li>

<li><a href="Great_Purge" title="Great Purge">Great Purge</a></li>

<li><a href="Soviet_Union_in_World_War_II" title="Soviet Union in World War II">Great Patriotic War</a> (World War II)

<ul><li><a href="Evacuation_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Evacuation in the Soviet Union">Evacuation</a></li>

<li><a href="The_Holocaust_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="The Holocaust in the Soviet Union">The Holocaust</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Khrushchev_thaw" title="Khrushchev thaw">Khrushchev thaw</a></li>

<li><a href="Sino-Soviet_split" title="Sino-Soviet split">Sino-Soviet split</a></li>

<li><a href="Cuban_Missile_Crisis" title="Cuban Missile Crisis">Caribbean Crisis</a></li>

<li><a href="Era_of_Stagnation" title="Era of Stagnation">Stagnation</a></li>

<li><a href="Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Soviet–Afghan War">Soviet–Afghan War</a></li>

<li><a href="Perestroika" title="Perestroika">Perestroika</a></li>

<li><a href="Glasnost" title="Glasnost">Glasnost</a></li>

<li><a href="Chernobyl_disaster" title="Chernobyl disaster">Chernobyl disaster</a></li>

<li><a href="Revolutions_of_1989" title="Revolutions of 1989">Revolutions of 1989</a></li>

<li><a href="1991_Soviet_coup_attempt" title="1991 Soviet coup attempt">August Coup</a></li>

<li><a href="Parade_of_sovereignties" title="Parade of sovereignties">Parade of sovereignties</a></li>

<li><a href="Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">Dissolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Transition_period_and_cessation_of_the_existence_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Transition period and cessation of the existence of the Soviet Union">Transition period and cessation of the existence</a></li>

<li><a href="Succession%2C_continuity_and_legacy_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Succession, continuity and legacy of the Soviet Union">Succession, continuity and legacy</a></li>

<li><a href="Post-Soviet_states" title="Post-Soviet states">Post-Soviet states</a></li>

<li><a href="Nostalgia_for_the_Soviet_Union" title="Nostalgia for the Soviet Union">Nostalgia</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Geography_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Geography of the Soviet Union">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Subdivisions_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Subdivisions of the Soviet Union">Subdivisions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Republics_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Republics of the Soviet Union">Republics</a>

<ul><li><a href="Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republics" title="Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republics">Autonomous</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Krais_of_Russia" title="Krais of Russia">Krais</a></li>

<li><a href="Oblasts_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Oblasts of the Soviet Union">Oblasts</a>

<ul><li><a href="Autonomous_oblasts_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Autonomous oblasts of the Soviet Union">Autonomous</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Autonomous_okrugs_of_Russia" title="Autonomous okrugs of Russia">Autonomous okrugs</a></li>

<li><a href="Closed_city" title="Closed city">Closed city</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Baltic_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Baltic States">Baltic States</a></li>

<li><a href="Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a></li>

<li><a href="Caucasus_Mountains" title="Caucasus Mountains">Caucasus Mountains</a></li>

<li><a href="Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a></li>

<li><a href="Crimea" title="Crimea">Crimea</a></li>

<li><a href="European_Russia" title="European Russia">European Russia</a></li>

<li><a href="North_Caucasus" title="North Caucasus">North Caucasus</a></li>

<li><a href="Russian_Far_East" title="Russian Far East">Russian Far East</a></li>

<li><a href="Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a></li>

<li><a href="Transcaucasia" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcaucasia">Transcaucasia</a></li>

<li><a href="Ural_Mountains" title="Ural Mountains">Ural Mountains</a></li>

<li><a href="Volga_Region" class="mw-redirect" title="Volga Region">Volga Region</a></li>

<li><a href="West_Siberian_Plain" title="West Siberian Plain">West Siberian Plain</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Politics_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Politics of the Soviet Union">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Conscription_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Conscription in the Soviet Union">Conscription</a></li>

<li><a href="Constitution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Constitution of the Soviet Union">Constitution</a>

<li><a href="Elections_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Elections in the Soviet Union">Elections</a></li>

<li><a href="Foreign_relations_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Foreign relations of the Soviet Union">Foreign relations</a>

<ul><li><a href="Brezhnev_Doctrine" title="Brezhnev Doctrine">Brezhnev Doctrine</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Gun_control_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Gun control in the Soviet Union">Gun control</a></li>

<li><a href="Government_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Government of the Soviet Union">Government</a>

<li><a href="Ministries_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Ministries of the Soviet Union">Ministries</a></li>

<li><a href="State_Committee_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="State Committee of the Soviet Union">State Committees</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Human_rights_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Human rights in the Soviet Union">Human rights</a>

<li><a href="Capital_punishment_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Capital punishment in the Soviet Union">Capital punishment</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_leaders_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of leaders of the Soviet Union">Leaders</a>

<ul><li><a href="Collective_leadership_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Collective leadership in the Soviet Union">Collective leadership</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="National_delimitation_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="National delimitation in the Soviet Union">National delimitation</a></li>

<li><a href="Passport_system_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Passport system in the Soviet Union">Passport system</a></li>

<li><a href="Propiska_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Propiska in the Soviet Union">Propiska</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_political_parties_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of political parties in the Soviet Union">Political parties</a></li>

<li><a href="Ideology_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Ideology of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">State ideology</a>

<ul><li><a href="Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism" title="Marxism–Leninism">Marxism–Leninism</a></li>

<li><a href="Leninism" title="Leninism">Leninism</a></li>

<li><a href="Stalinism" title="Stalinism">Stalinism</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Soviet_anti-Zionism" title="Soviet anti-Zionism">Soviet anti-Zionism</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Bodies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Communist Party</a>

<ul><li><a href="Organization_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Organization of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">organisation</a></li>

<li><a href="Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Congress</a></li>

<li><a href="Central_Committee_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Central Committee</a>

<ul><li><a href="Politburo_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Presidium/Politburo</a></li>

<li><a href="Secretariat_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Secretariat of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Secretariat</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="General_Secretary_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">General Secretary</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Congress_of_Soviets_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Congress of Soviets of the Soviet Union">Congress of Soviets</a> (1922–1936)</li>

<li><a href="Supreme_Soviet_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union">Supreme Soviet</a> (1938–1991)</li>

<li><a href="Congress_of_People's_Deputies_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Congress of People's Deputies of the Soviet Union">Congress of People's Deputies</a> (1989–1991)</li>

<li><a href="Supreme_Court_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Supreme Court of the Soviet Union">Supreme Court</a>

<ul><li><a href="Military_Collegium_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Military Collegium of the Supreme Court of the Soviet Union">Military Collegium</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="All-Union_Central_Council_of_Trade_Unions" title="All-Union Central Council of Trade Unions">All-Union Central Council of Trade Unions</a></li>

<li><a href="Creative_unions_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Creative unions in the Soviet Union">Creative unions</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Offices</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="List_of_heads_of_state_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of heads of state of the Soviet Union">Heads of state</a>

<ul><li><a href="President_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="President of the Soviet Union">President</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Premier_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Premier of the Soviet Union">Premier</a></li>

<li><a href="Deputy_Premier_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Deputy Premier of the Soviet Union">Deputy Premier</a></li>

<li><a href="First_Deputy_Premier_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="First Deputy Premier of the Soviet Union">First Deputy Premier</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Chronology_of_Soviet_secret_police_agencies" title="Chronology of Soviet secret police agencies">Security services</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Cheka" title="Cheka">Cheka</a></li>

<ul><li><a href="Destruction_battalions" class="mw-redirect" title="Destruction battalions">Destruction battalions</a></li></ul></li>

<ul><li><a href="Militsiya" title="Militsiya">Militsiya</a></li></ul></li>

<ul><li><a href="List_of_chairmen_of_the_KGB" title="List of chairmen of the KGB">Chairmen</a></li>

<li><a href="Soviet_Border_Troops" title="Soviet Border Troops">Soviet Border Troops</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Soviet_Armed_Forces" title="Soviet Armed Forces">Soviet Armed Forces</a>

<ul><li><a href="Soviet_Army" title="Soviet Army">Soviet Army</a>/<a href="Spetsnaz_GRU" title="Spetsnaz GRU">Spetsnaz GRU</a> • <a href="Soviet_Navy" title="Soviet Navy">Soviet Navy</a> • <a href="Soviet_Air_Forces" title="Soviet Air Forces">Soviet Air Forces</a>/<a href="Soviet_Airborne_Forces" title="Soviet Airborne Forces">Soviet Airborne Forces</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Political_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Political repression in the Soviet Union">Political repression</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Red_Terror" title="Red Terror">Red Terror</a></li>

<li><a href="Collectivization_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Collectivization in the Soviet Union">Collectivization</a></li>

<li><a href="Great_Purge" title="Great Purge">Great Purge</a></li>

<li><a href="Population_transfer_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Population transfer in the Soviet Union">Population transfer</a></li>

<li><a href="Forced_labor_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Forced labor in the Soviet Union">Forced labor</a></li>

<li><a href="Foreign_forced_labor_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Foreign forced labor in the Soviet Union">Foreign forced labor</a>

<ul><li><a href="POW_labor_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="POW labor in the Soviet Union">POW labor</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Gulag" title="Gulag">Gulag</a>

<li><a href="Holodomor" title="Holodomor">Holodomor</a></li>

<li><a href="Political_abuse_of_psychiatry_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union">Political abuse of psychiatry</a>

<ul><li><a href="Struggle_against_political_abuse_of_psychiatry_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Struggle against political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union">Anti-abuse struggle</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Soviet_war_crimes" title="Soviet war crimes">War crimes</a>

<ul><li><a href="Soviet_atrocities_committed_against_prisoners_of_war_during_World_War_II" title="Soviet atrocities committed against prisoners of war during World War II">Atrocities against prisoners of war</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Ideological_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Ideological repression in the Soviet Union">Ideological repression</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Persecution of Christians in the Soviet Union">Persecution of Christians</a>

<ul><li><a href="Eastern_Catholic_victims_of_Soviet_persecutions" title="Eastern Catholic victims of Soviet persecutions">Eastern Catholics</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Repression_of_science_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Repression of science in the Soviet Union">Science</a></li>

<li><a href="Censorship_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Censorship in the Soviet Union">Censorship</a></li>

<li><a href="Censorship_of_images_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Censorship of images in the Soviet Union">Censorship of images</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Economy_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Economy of the Soviet Union">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Agriculture_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Agriculture in the Soviet Union">Agriculture</a></li>

<li><a href="Banking_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Banking in the Soviet Union">Banking</a>

<ul><li><a href="Gosbank" class="mw-redirect" title="Gosbank">Central Bank</a></li>

<li><a href="State_Labor_Savings_Banks_System_of_the_USSR" title="State Labor Savings Banks System of the USSR">State Labor Savings Banks System</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Soviet-type_economic_planning" title="Soviet-type economic planning">Economic planning</a></li>

<li><a href="Energy_policy_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Energy policy of the Soviet Union">Energy policy</a></li>

<li><a href="Enterprises_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Enterprises in the Soviet Union">Enterprises</a></li>

<li><a href="Five-year_plans_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Five-year plans of the Soviet Union">Five-year plans</a></li>

<li><a href="Industrialization_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Industrialization in the Soviet Union">Industrialization</a></li>

<li><a href=".su" title=".su">Internet domain</a></li>

<li><a href="Timeline_of_Russian_innovation#Soviet_Union" title="Timeline of Russian innovation">Inventions</a></li>

<li><a href="Net_material_product" title="Net material product">Net material product</a></li>

<li>Economic reforms

<ul><li><a href="Wage_reform_in_the_Soviet_Union%2C_1956%E2%80%931962" title="Wage reform in the Soviet Union, 1956–1962">1956–1962 Wage reform</a></li>

<li><a href="Soviet_ruble" title="Soviet ruble">Rouble <span style="font-size: 85%;">(currency)</span></a></li>

<li>Monetary reforms

<li><a href="Automotive_industry_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Automotive industry in the Soviet Union">Automotive industry</a></li>

<li><a href="Housing_construction_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Housing construction in the Soviet Union">Construction</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Transport_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Transport of the Soviet Union">Transport</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Ministry_of_Railways_(Soviet_Union)" title="Ministry of Railways (Soviet Union)">Ministry of Railways</a></li>

<li><a href="Railway_system_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Railway system of the Soviet Union">Railway system</a></li>

<li><a href="Rail_transport_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Rail transport in the Soviet Union">Rail transport</a></li>

<li><a href="Railway_electrification_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Railway electrification in the Soviet Union">Railway electrification</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_metro_systems_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of metro systems in the Soviet Union">List of metro systems</a></li>

<li><a href="Vehicle_registration_plates_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Vehicle registration plates of the Soviet Union">Vehicle registration plates</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Science_and_technology_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Science and technology in the Soviet Union">Science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Communist_Academy" title="Communist Academy">Communist Academy</a></li>

<li><a href="Cybernetics_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Cybernetics in the Soviet Union">Cybernetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Russian_Academy_of_Sciences#In_the_Soviet_Union" title="Russian Academy of Sciences">Academy of Sciences</a></li>

<li><a href="USSR_Academy_of_Medical_Sciences" title="USSR Academy of Medical Sciences">Academy of Medical Sciences</a></li>

<li><a href="VASKhNIL" title="VASKhNIL">Lenin All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences</a></li>

<li><a href="Sharashka" title="Sharashka">Sharashkas</a></li>

<li><a href="Naukograd" title="Naukograd">Naukograds</a>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Antisemitism_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Antisemitism in the Soviet Union">Antisemitism</a></li>

<li><a href="Crime_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Crime in the Soviet Union">Crime</a></li>

<li><a href="Demographics_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Demographics of the Soviet Union">Demographics</a>

<ul><li><a href="Soviet_people" title="Soviet people">Soviet people</a></li>

<li><a href="Soviet_working_class" title="Soviet working class">Working class</a></li>

<li><a href="1989_Soviet_census" title="1989 Soviet census">1989 census</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Drug_policy_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Drug policy of the Soviet Union">Drug policy</a></li>

<li><a href="Ethnic_conflicts_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Ethnic conflicts in the Soviet Union">Ethnic conflicts</a></li>

<li><a href="Family_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Family in the Soviet Union">Family</a></li>

<li><a href="Languages_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Languages of the Soviet Union">Languages</a>

<ul><li><a href="Linguistics_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistics of the Soviet Union">Linguistics</a></li>

<li><a href="Cyrillisation_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Cyrillisation in the Soviet Union">Cyrillisation</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Prohibition_in_the_Russian_Empire_and_the_Soviet_Union" title="Prohibition in the Russian Empire and the Soviet Union">Prohibition</a></li>

<li><a href="Racism_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Racism in the Soviet Union">Racism</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Culture_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Culture of the Soviet Union">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Russian_ballet" title="Russian ballet">Ballet</a></li>

<li><a href="Cinema_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Cinema of the Soviet Union">Cinema</a></li>

<li><a href="Fashion_in_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Fashion in the Soviet Union">Fashion</a></li>

<li><a href="Russian_literature#20th_century" title="Russian literature">Literature</a></li>

<li><a href="Music_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Music of the Soviet Union">Music</a>

<ul><li><a href="Russian_opera#20th_century" title="Russian opera">Opera</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Soviet_phraseology" title="Soviet phraseology">Phraseology</a></li>

<li><a href="Printed_media_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Printed media in the Soviet Union">Printed media</a></li>

<li><a href="Propaganda_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Propaganda in the Soviet Union">Propaganda</a></li>

<li><a href="Publishing_houses_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Publishing houses in the Soviet Union">Publishing houses</a></li>

<li><a href="Religion_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Religion in the Soviet Union">Religion</a>

<ul><li><a href="Islam_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Islam in the Soviet Union">Islam</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Sport_in_Russia" title="Sport in Russia">Sports</a></li>

<li><a href="Stalinist_architecture" title="Stalinist architecture">Stalinist architecture</a></li>

<li><a href="Broadcasting_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Broadcasting in the Soviet Union">Broadcasting</a>

<ul><li><a href="Radio_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Radio in the Soviet Union">Radio</a></li>

<li><a href="Television_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Television in the Soviet Union">Television</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Anti-Sovietism" title="Anti-Sovietism">Opposition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Anti-Soviet_agitation" title="Anti-Soviet agitation">Anti-Soviet agitation</a></li>

<li><a href="Soviet_dissidents" title="Soviet dissidents">Soviet dissidents</a> and their groups

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Symbols</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="State_Anthem_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="State Anthem of the Soviet Union">Anthem</a>

<ul><li><a href="Anthems_of_the_Soviet_Republics" title="Anthems of the Soviet Republics">Republics</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="State_Emblem_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="State Emblem of the Soviet Union">Emblem</a>

<ul><li><a href="Emblems_of_the_Soviet_Republics" title="Emblems of the Soviet Republics">Republics</a></li></ul></li>

<ul><li><a href="Flags_of_the_Soviet_Republics" title="Flags of the Soviet Republics">Republics</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Hammer_and_sickle" title="Hammer and sickle">Hammer and sickle</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div>

<ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span> </span><a href="Portal%3ASoviet_Union" title="Portal:Soviet Union">Soviet Union portal</a></b></li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span> Category</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Politics_of_outer_space613" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Politics_of_outer_space613" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Politics_of_outer_space" title="Politics of outer space">Politics of outer space</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Spaceflight#Spacefaring_civilization:_nations_and_other_entities" title="Spaceflight">Spacefaring nations</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_policy" title="Space policy">Space policy</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_traffic_management" title="Space traffic management">Space traffic management</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_debris" title="Space debris">Space debris management</a>

<ul><li><a href="Orbital_Debris_Co-ordination_Working_Group" title="Orbital Debris Co-ordination Working Group">Space Debris Working Group</a></li>

<li><a href="Inter-Agency_Space_Debris_Coordination_Committee" title="Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee">Space Debris Committee</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Planetary_protection" title="Planetary protection">Planetary protection principle</a></li>

<li><a href="Post-detection_policy" title="Post-detection policy">Post-detection policy</a></li>

<li>Asteroid impact

<ul><li><a href="Asteroid_impact_prediction" title="Asteroid impact prediction">Prediction</a></li>

<li><a href="Asteroid_impact_avoidance" title="Asteroid impact avoidance">Avoidance</a></li>

<li><a href="Spaceguard" title="Spaceguard">Spaceguard</a>

<ul><li><a href="The_Spaceguard_Foundation" title="The Spaceguard Foundation">The Spaceguard Foundation</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="List_of_space_races" title="List of space races">Space races</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Space_Race" title="Space Race">Cold War Space Race</a>

<ul><li><a href="Sputnik_crisis" title="Sputnik crisis">Sputnik crisis</a></li>

<li><a href="Timeline_of_the_Space_Race" title="Timeline of the Space Race">Timeline</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Billionaire_space_race" title="Billionaire space race">Billionaire space race</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_spaceflight_records" title="List of spaceflight records">Records</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_propaganda" title="Space propaganda">Space propaganda</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_competition" title="Space competition">Space competition</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Chinese_space_program" title="Chinese space program">Chinese<br>space program</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Two_Bombs%2C_One_Satellite" title="Two Bombs, One Satellite">Two Bombs, One Satellite doctrine</a> (1966–1976)</li>

<li><a href="Shuguang_(spacecraft)" title="Shuguang (spacecraft)">Shuguang program</a> (1966–1972)</li>

<li><a href="ASAT_program_of_China" title="ASAT program of China">Chinese ASAT program</a> (1964–)

<li><a href="Chinese_space_program#Project_921_(Shenzhou)" title="Chinese space program">Project 921</a> (1992–)

<ul><li><a href="Shenzhou_program" class="mw-redirect" title="Shenzhou program"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh" style="font-style: normal;">Shenzhou</span></span> program</a></li>

<li><a href="Tiangong_program" title="Tiangong program"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh" style="font-style: normal;">Tiangong</span></span> program</a></li>

<li><a href="Tiangong_space_station" title="Tiangong space station">Space station</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Chinese_Lunar_Exploration_Program" title="Chinese Lunar Exploration Program">Chinese Lunar Exploration Program</a> (2003–)</li>

<li><a href="Chinese_space_program#Mission_to_Mars_and_beyond" title="Chinese space program">Mars and beyond</a>

<ul><li><a href="Planetary_Exploration_of_China" title="Planetary Exploration of China">Planetary Exploration of China</a> (2016–)</li>

<li><a href="MARS-500" title="MARS-500">MARS-500 study</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="European_Space_Agency_Science_Programme" title="European Space Agency Science Programme">ESA Science Programme</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="European_Launcher_Development_Organisation" title="European Launcher Development Organisation">European Launcher Development Organisation</a> (1960–1975)

<ul><li><a href="Europa_(rocket)" title="Europa (rocket)">Europa launcher programme</a> (1962–1973)</li></ul></li>

<li><a href="European_Space_Research_Organisation" title="European Space Research Organisation">European Space Research Organisation</a> (1964–1975)</li>

<li><a href="European_Space_Agency" title="European Space Agency">European Space Agency</a> (1975–)

<ul><li><a href="European_Union_Space_Programme#EU/ESA_Space_Council" title="European Union Space Programme">EU/ESA Space Council</a></li>

<li><a href="European_Cooperation_for_Space_Standardization" title="European Cooperation for Space Standardization">European Cooperation for Space Standardization</a></li>

<li><a href="European_Space_Research_and_Technology_Centre" title="European Space Research and Technology Centre">European Space Research and Technology Centre</a>

<ul><li><a href="Concurrent_Design_Facility" title="Concurrent Design Facility">Concurrent Design Facility</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="European_Astronaut_Centre" title="European Astronaut Centre">European Astronaut Centre</a></li>

<li><a href="ESA_Centre_for_Earth_Observation" title="ESA Centre for Earth Observation">ESA Centre for Earth Observation</a>

<ul><li><a href="Living_Planet_Programme" title="Living Planet Programme">Living Planet Programme</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="European_Centre_for_Space_Applications_and_Telecommunications" title="European Centre for Space Applications and Telecommunications">European Centre for Space Applications and Telecommunications</a></li>

<li><a href="European_Data_Relay_System" title="European Data Relay System">European Data Relay System</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_Telescope_European_Coordinating_Facility" title="Space Telescope European Coordinating Facility">Space Telescope European Coordinating Facility</a> (1983–2010)</li>

<li><a href="European_Space_Astronomy_Centre" title="European Space Astronomy Centre">European Space Astronomy Centre</a> (2005–)</li>

<li><a href="European_Space_Security_and_Education_Centre" title="European Space Security and Education Centre">European Space Security and Education Centre</a></li>

<li><a href="European_Space_Operations_Centre" title="European Space Operations Centre">European Space Operations Centre</a>

<ul><li><a href="ESTRACK" title="ESTRACK">ESTRACK network</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Guiana_Space_Centre" title="Guiana Space Centre">Guiana Space Centre</a></li>

<li><a href="Ariane_(rocket_family)" title="Ariane (rocket family)">Ariane launcher programme</a> (1973–)</li>

<li><a href="Vega_(rocket)" title="Vega (rocket)">Vega launcher programme</a> (1998–)</li>

<li>European Space Policy Institute</li>

<li><a href="Space_Situational_Awareness_Programme" title="Space Situational Awareness Programme">Space Situational Awareness Programme</a></li>

<li><a href="Future_Launchers_Preparatory_Programme" title="Future Launchers Preparatory Programme">Future Launchers Preparatory Programme</a>

<ul><li><a href="Intermediate_eXperimental_Vehicle" title="Intermediate eXperimental Vehicle">Intermediate eXperimental Vehicle</a></li>

<li><a href="Programme_for_Reusable_In-orbit_Demonstrator_in_Europe" title="Programme for Reusable In-orbit Demonstrator in Europe">PRIDE</a>

<ul><li><a href="Space_Rider" title="Space Rider">Space Rider</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="ESA_Television" title="ESA Television">ESA Television</a></li>

<li>Mars and beyond

<ul><li><a href="Mars_Exploration_Joint_Initiative" title="Mars Exploration Joint Initiative">Mars Exploration Joint Initiative</a></li>

<li><a href="MARS-500" title="MARS-500">MARS-500 study</a></li>

<li><a href="Aurora_programme" title="Aurora programme">Aurora programme</a></li>

<li><a href="ExoMars" title="ExoMars">ExoMars</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul>

</div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Horizon 2000 (1985–1995)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><i><a href="Cassini%E2%80%93Huygens" title="Cassini–Huygens">Cassini–Huygens</a></i>

<ul><li><i><a href="Huygens_(spacecraft)" title="Huygens (spacecraft)">Huygens</a></i></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Cluster_(spacecraft)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cluster (spacecraft)">Cluster</a></li>

<li><a href="Cluster_II_(spacecraft)" title="Cluster II (spacecraft)">Cluster II</a></li>

<li><a href="XMM-Newton" title="XMM-Newton">XMM-<i>Newton</i></a></li>

<li><i><a href="Rosetta_(spacecraft)" title="Rosetta (spacecraft)">Rosetta</a></i></li>

<li><a href="INTEGRAL" title="INTEGRAL">INTEGRAL</a></li>

<li><i><a href="Herschel_Space_Observatory" title="Herschel Space Observatory">Herschel</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Planck_(spacecraft)" title="Planck (spacecraft)">Planck</a></i></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Horizon 2000 Plus (1995–2015)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="International_Space_Station_programme" title="International Space Station programme">ISS programme</a>

<ul><li><a href="Politics_of_the_International_Space_Station" title="Politics of the International Space Station">Politics</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="LISA_Pathfinder" title="LISA Pathfinder">LISA Pathfinder</a></li>

<li><i><a href="BepiColombo" title="BepiColombo">BepiColombo</a></i></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Cosmic_Vision" title="Cosmic Vision">Cosmic Vision</a> (2015–2025)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Solar_Orbiter" title="Solar Orbiter">Solar Orbiter</a></li>

<li><a href="Euclid_(spacecraft)" title="Euclid (spacecraft)">Euclid</a></li>

<li><a href="ARIEL" title="ARIEL">ARIEL</a></li>

<li><a href="EnVision_(spacecraft)" class="mw-redirect" title="EnVision (spacecraft)">EnVision</a></li>

<li><a href="CHEOPS" title="CHEOPS">CHEOPS</a></li>

<li><a href="Jupiter_Icy_Moons_Explorer" title="Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer">JUICE</a></li>

<li><a href="Advanced_Telescope_for_High_Energy_Astrophysics" title="Advanced Telescope for High Energy Astrophysics">ATHENA</a></li>

<li><a href="Comet_Interceptor" title="Comet Interceptor">Comet Interceptor</a></li>

<li><a href="SMILE_(spacecraft)" title="SMILE (spacecraft)">SMILE</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="European_Union_Space_Programme" title="European Union Space Programme">EU Space Programme</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Western_European_Union" title="Western European Union">Western European Union Satellite Centre</a> (1992–2002)</li>

<li><a href="European_Union_Satellite_Centre" title="European Union Satellite Centre">EU Satellite Centre</a> (2002–)</li>

<li><a href="European_Union_Space_Programme#EU/ESA_Space_Council" title="European Union Space Programme">EU/ESA Space Council</a></li>

<li><a href="Directorate-General_for_Defence_Industry_and_Space" title="Directorate-General for Defence Industry and Space">EU Commission DG Defence Industry and Space</a>

<ul><li>European GNSS Supervisory Authority (2004–2010)</li>

<li>European GNSS Agency (2010–2021)</li>

<li><a href="European_Union_Agency_for_the_Space_Programme" title="European Union Agency for the Space Programme">EU Agency for the Space Programme</a> (2021–)

<ul><li><a href="Galileo_(satellite_navigation)" title="Galileo (satellite navigation)">Galileo programme</a></li>

<li><a href="Copernicus_Programme" title="Copernicus Programme">Copernicus programme</a></li>

<li><a href="European_Geostationary_Navigation_Overlay_Service" title="European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service">EGNOS programme</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_domain_awareness" title="Space domain awareness">EUSST programme</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Body_of_European_Regulators_for_Electronic_Communications" title="Body of European Regulators for Electronic Communications">Body of European Regulators for Electronic Communications</a></li>

<li><a href="European_Union_Aviation_Safety_Agency" title="European Union Aviation Safety Agency">European Union Aviation Safety Agency</a></li>

<li><a href="European_Network_of_Civil_Aviation_Safety_Investigation_Authorities" title="European Network of Civil Aviation Safety Investigation Authorities">European Network of Civil Aviation Safety Investigation Authorities</a></li>

<li><a href="European_Defence_Agency" title="European Defence Agency">European Defence Agency</a></li>

<li><a href="Europe_by_Satellite" title="Europe by Satellite">Europe by Satellite</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other European<br> initiatives and bodies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="AeroSpace_and_Defence_Industries_Association_of_Europe" title="AeroSpace and Defence Industries Association of Europe">AeroSpace and Defence Industries Association of Europe</a>

<ul><li><a href="Eurospace" title="Eurospace">Eurospace</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Eurocontrol" title="Eurocontrol">Eurocontrol</a></li>

<li><a href="Council_of_Europe" title="Council of Europe">Council of Europe</a></li>

<li><a href="Council_of_European_Aerospace_Societies" title="Council of European Aerospace Societies">Council of European Aerospace Societies</a></li>

<li><a href="European_Broadcasting_Union" title="European Broadcasting Union">European Broadcasting Union</a></li>

<li><a href="European_Civil_Aviation_Conference" title="European Civil Aviation Conference">European Civil Aviation Conference</a></li>

<li><a href="European_Committee_for_Standardization" title="European Committee for Standardization">European Committee for Standardization</a>/<a href="European_Committee_for_Electrotechnical_Standardization" title="European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization">European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization</a></li>

<li><a href="European_Conference_of_Postal_and_Telecommunications_Administrations" title="European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations">European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations</a>

<ul><li><a href="ETSI" class="mw-redirect" title="ETSI">European Telecommunications Standards Institute</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="European_Organisation_for_Civil_Aviation_Equipment" title="European Organisation for Civil Aviation Equipment">European Organisation for Civil Aviation Equipment</a></li>

<li><a href="European_Organisation_for_the_Exploitation_of_Meteorological_Satellites" class="mw-redirect" title="European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites">European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites</a></li>

<li><a href="European_Patent_Organisation" title="European Patent Organisation">European Patent Organisation</a>

<ul><li><a href="European_Patent_Office" title="European Patent Office">European Patent Office</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="European_Telecommunications_Satellite_Organization" title="European Telecommunications Satellite Organization">European Telecommunications Satellite Organization</a></li>

<li><a href="European_Southern_Observatory" title="European Southern Observatory">European Southern Observatory</a></li>

<li><a href="Organization_for_Security_and_Co-operation_in_Europe" title="Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe">Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Indian space policy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Department_of_Space" title="Department of Space">Department of Space</a></li>

<li><a href="Indian_Human_Spaceflight_Programme" title="Indian Human Spaceflight Programme">Indian Human Spaceflight Programme</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_Activities_Bill" title="Space Activities Bill">Space Activities Bill</a></li>

<li><a href="Indian_Ballistic_Missile_Defence_Programme#Prithvi_Defence_Vehicle_Mark_2" title="Indian Ballistic Missile Defence Programme">Indian ASAT programme</a>

<ul><li><a href="Mission_Shakti" title="Mission Shakti">Mission Shakti</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="British_space_programme" title="British space programme">British<br>space programme</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="British_National_Committee_for_Space_Research" title="British National Committee for Space Research">Creation of the British National Committee for Space Research</a> (1958)</li>

<li><a href="Ariel_programme" title="Ariel programme">Start of the Ariel programme</a> (1962)</li>

<li><a href="Black_Arrow" title="Black Arrow">Black Arrow launcher</a> (1964–1971)</li>

<li><a href="British_National_Space_Centre" title="British National Space Centre">Creation of the British National Space Centre</a> (1985)</li>

<li><a href="Outer_Space_Act_1986" title="Outer Space Act 1986">Outer Space Act 1986</a></li>

<li><a href="Project_Juno" title="Project Juno">Project Juno</a> (1991)</li>

<li><a href="Space_Innovation_and_Growth_Team" title="Space Innovation and Growth Team">Space Innovation and Growth Team</a> (2009–2010)</li>

<li><a href="UK_Space_Agency" title="UK Space Agency">Creation of the UK Space Agency</a> (2010)</li>

<li><a href="Strategic_Defence_and_Security_Review_2015" title="Strategic Defence and Security Review 2015">Strategic Defence and Security Review 2015</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_Industry_Act_2018" title="Space Industry Act 2018">Space Industry Act 2018</a></li>

<li><a href="United_Kingdom_Global_Navigation_Satellite_System" title="United Kingdom Global Navigation Satellite System">UK Global Navigation Satellite System</a> (2018–2020)</li>

<li><a href="Integrated_Review" title="Integrated Review">2021 Integrated Review</a>

<ul><li><i><a href="Defence_in_a_Competitive_Age" title="Defence in a Competitive Age">Defence in a Competitive Age</a></i></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Space_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Space policy of the United States">US space policy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Space_policy_of_the_United_States#Truman_administration" title="Space policy of the United States">Truman<br> space policy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Operation_Paperclip" title="Operation Paperclip">Operation Paperclip</a>

<ul><li><a href="List_of_Germans_relocated_to_the_US_via_the_Operation_Paperclip" title="List of Germans relocated to the US via the Operation Paperclip">list of scientists</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Aerobee" title="Aerobee">Aerobee rocket program</a></li>

<li><a href="Cape_Canaveral_Space_Force_Station#History" title="Cape Canaveral Space Force Station">Establishment of Cape Canaveral</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Space_policy_of_the_United_States#Eisenhower_administration" title="Space policy of the United States">Eisenhower<br>space policy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Project_Vanguard" title="Project Vanguard">Project Vanguard</a></li>

<li><a href="Sputnik_crisis" title="Sputnik crisis">Sputnik crisis</a></li>

<li><i><a href="Introduction_to_Outer_Space" title="Introduction to Outer Space">Introduction to Outer Space</a></i></li>

<ul><li><a href="Space_Act_Agreement" title="Space Act Agreement">Space Act Agreement</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Man_in_Space_Soonest" title="Man in Space Soonest">Cancellation of Man in Space Soonest</a></li>

<li><a href="Project_Mercury" title="Project Mercury">Launch of Project Mercury</a></li>

<li><a href="Missile_gap" title="Missile gap">Missile gap</a></li>

<li><a href="North_American_X-15" title="North American X-15">Launch of X-15 program</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Space_policy_of_the_United_States#Kennedy_administration" title="Space policy of the United States">Kennedy<br> space policy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Mariner_program" title="Mariner program">Launch of the Mariner program</a></li>

<li><a href="Project_Gemini" title="Project Gemini">Launch of the Gemini project</a></li>

<li><a href="Apollo_program" title="Apollo program">Launch of the Apollo program</a></li>

<li>"<a href="We_choose_to_go_to_the_Moon" title="We choose to go to the Moon">We choose to go to the Moon</a>"</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Space_policy_of_the_United_States#Johnson_administration" title="Space policy of the United States">Johnson<br> space policy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Outer_Space_Treaty" title="Outer Space Treaty">1967 Outer Space Treaty</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Space_policy_of_the_United_States#Nixon_administration" title="Space policy of the United States">Nixon<br> space policy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Apollo_11" title="Apollo 11">Moon landing</a></li>

<li><a href="Extra-Terrestrial_Exposure_Law" title="Extra-Terrestrial Exposure Law">Extra-Terrestrial Exposure Law</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_Shuttle_program" title="Space Shuttle program">Launch of the Space Shuttle Program</a></li>

<li><a href="Skylab" title="Skylab">Skylab</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Space_policy_of_the_United_States#Ford_administration" title="Space policy of the United States">Ford<br> space policy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Apollo%E2%80%93Soyuz" title="Apollo–Soyuz">Apollo–Soyuz</a></li>

<li><a href="Viking_program" title="Viking program">Launch of the Viking program</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Space_policy_of_the_United_States#Carter_administration" title="Space policy of the United States">Carter<br> space policy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Space_policy_of_the_United_States#Reagan_administration" title="Space policy of the United States">Reagan<br> space policy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Citizens'_Advisory_Council_on_National_Space_Policy" title="Citizens' Advisory Council on National Space Policy">Citizens' Advisory Council</a></li>

<li><a href="Strategy_of_Technology" title="Strategy of Technology">Strategy of Technology doctrine</a></li>

<li><a href="Strategic_Defense_Initiative" title="Strategic Defense Initiative">Strategic Defense Initiative</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_Station_Freedom" title="Space Station Freedom">Space Station Freedom proposal</a></li>

<li><a href="Commercial_Space_Launch_Act_of_1984" title="Commercial Space Launch Act of 1984">1984 Space Act</a></li>

<li><a href="ASM-135_ASAT" title="ASM-135 ASAT">1985 anti-satellite missile test</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_Shuttle_Challenger_disaster" title="Space Shuttle Challenger disaster">Space Shuttle <i>Challenger</i> disaster</a></li>

<li><a href="Rogers_Commission_Report" title="Rogers Commission Report">Rogers Report</a></li>

<li><a href="Ride_Report" title="Ride Report">Ride Report</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Space_policy_of_the_United_States#George_H._W._Bush_administration" title="Space policy of the United States">George H. W. Bush<br>space policy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Space_Exploration_Initiative" title="Space Exploration Initiative">Space Exploration Initiative</a></li>

<li><a href="Augustine_Committee" title="Augustine Committee">1990 Augustine Committee</a></li>

<li><a href="Hubble_Space_Telescope" title="Hubble Space Telescope">Hubble Space Telescope</a></li>

<li><a href="National_Space_Council" title="National Space Council">National Space Council</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Space_policy_of_the_United_States#Clinton_administration" title="Space policy of the United States">Clinton<br> space policy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><i><a href="Daniel_Goldin#NASA_administrator" title="Daniel Goldin">Faster, better, cheaper</a></i></li>

<li><a href="Gore%E2%80%93Chernomyrdin_Commission" title="Gore–Chernomyrdin Commission">Gore–Chernomyrdin Commission</a></li>

<ul><li><a href="Shuttle%E2%80%93Mir_program" title="Shuttle–Mir program">Shuttle–Mir program</a></li>

<li><a href="International_Space_Station_programme" title="International Space Station programme">ISS programme</a>

<ul><li><a href="Politics_of_the_International_Space_Station" title="Politics of the International Space Station">Politics</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Mars_Exploration_Program" title="Mars Exploration Program">Launch of the Mars Exploration Program</a></li>

<li><a href="Commercial_Space_Act_of_1998" class="mw-redirect" title="Commercial Space Act of 1998">1998 Space Act</a></li>

<li><a href="Decadal_Planning_Team" title="Decadal Planning Team">Decadal Planning Team</a></li>

<li><a href="Boeing_X-37" title="Boeing X-37">Launch of the X-37 program</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Space_policy_of_the_George_W._Bush_administration" title="Space policy of the George W. Bush administration">George W. Bush<br>space policy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Commission_on_the_Future_of_the_United_States_Aerospace_Industry" title="Commission on the Future of the United States Aerospace Industry">Aerospace Industry Commission</a></li>

<li><a href="United_States_national_missile_defense" title="United States national missile defense">2002 National missile defense directive</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_Shuttle_Columbia_disaster" title="Space Shuttle Columbia disaster">Space Shuttle <i>Columbia</i> disaster</a></li>

<li><a href="Vision_for_Space_Exploration" title="Vision for Space Exploration">Vision for Space Exploration</a></li>

<li><a href="President's_Commission_on_Implementation_of_United_States_Space_Exploration_Policy" title="President's Commission on Implementation of United States Space Exploration Policy">Aldridge Commission</a></li>

<li><a href="Constellation_program" title="Constellation program">Launch of the Constellation program</a></li>

<li><a href="Operation_Burnt_Frost" title="Operation Burnt Frost">Operation Burnt Frost</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Space_policy_of_the_Obama_administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Space policy of the Obama administration">Obama<br> space policy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Review_of_United_States_Human_Space_Flight_Plans_Committee" title="Review of United States Human Space Flight Plans Committee">2009 Augustine Committee</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_policy_of_the_Obama_administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Space policy of the Obama administration">Kennedy Space Center speech</a></li>

<li><a href="Constellation_program#Obama_administration" title="Constellation program">Cancellation of the Constellation program</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_Launch_System" title="Space Launch System">Launch of the Space Launch System program</a></li>

<li><a href="Orion_(spacecraft)" title="Orion (spacecraft)">Redesign of the Orion program</a></li>

<li><a href="Flexible_path" class="mw-redirect" title="Flexible path">Flexible path</a></li>

<li><a href="Mars_Exploration_Joint_Initiative" title="Mars Exploration Joint Initiative">Mars Exploration Joint Initiative</a></li>

<li><a href="Title_51_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 51 of the United States Code">Title 51</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_Shuttle_retirement" title="Space Shuttle retirement">Space Shuttle retirement</a></li>

<li><a href="Development_of_the_Commercial_Crew_Program" title="Development of the Commercial Crew Program">Development of the Commercial Crew Program</a></li>

<li><a href="Commercial_Space_Launch_Competitiveness_Act_of_2015" title="Commercial Space Launch Competitiveness Act of 2015">2015 Space Act</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Space_policy_of_the_Donald_Trump_administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Space policy of the Donald Trump administration">Trump<br> space policy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="National_Space_Council" title="National Space Council">Re-establishment of the National Space Council</a></li>

<li><a href="United_States_Space_Force" title="United States Space Force">Creation of the Space Force</a></li>

<li><a href="Artemis_program" title="Artemis program">Launch of the Artemis program</a></li>

<li><a href="Lunar_Gateway" title="Lunar Gateway">Launch of the Lunar Gateway project</a></li>

<li><a href="Executive_Order_13959" title="Executive Order 13959">Executive Order 13959</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="China_exclusion_policy_of_NASA" class="mw-redirect" title="China exclusion policy of NASA">China exclusion policy of NASA</a></li>

<li><a href="International_Traffic_in_Arms_Regulations" title="International Traffic in Arms Regulations">International Traffic in Arms Regulations</a></li>

<li><a href="Full-spectrum_dominance" title="Full-spectrum dominance">Full-spectrum dominance doctrine</a></li>

<li><a href="Budget_of_NASA" title="Budget of NASA">Budget of NASA</a></li>

<li><a href="United_States_House_Committee_on_Science%2C_Space%2C_and_Technology" title="United States House Committee on Science, Space, and Technology">House Committee on Space</a></li>

<li><a href="National_Environmental_Satellite%2C_Data%2C_and_Information_Service" title="National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service">NESDIS</a>

<ul><li><a href="Office_of_Space_Commerce" title="Office of Space Commerce">Office of Space Commerce</a></li></ul></li>

<ul><li><a href="IEEE_Aerospace_and_Electronic_Systems_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="IEEE Aerospace and Electronic Systems Society">Aerospace and Electronic Systems Society</a></li>

<li><a href="IEEE_Antennas_%26_Propagation_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="IEEE Antennas & Propagation Society">Antennas & Propagation Society</a></li>

<li><a href="IEEE_Broadcast_Technology_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="IEEE Broadcast Technology Society">Broadcast Technology Society</a></li>

<li><a href="IEEE_Geoscience_and_Remote_Sensing_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Society">Geoscience and Remote Sensing Society</a></li>

<li><a href="IEEE_Vehicular_Technology_Society" title="IEEE Vehicular Technology Society">Vehicular Technology Society</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">USSR and Russia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Stalin</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Operation_Osoaviakhim" title="Operation Osoaviakhim">Operation Osoaviakhim</a> (1946)

<ul><li><a href="List_of_Germans_transported_to_the_USSR_via_the_Operation_Osoaviakhim" title="List of Germans transported to the USSR via the Operation Osoaviakhim">list of scientists</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Khrushchev</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Sputnik_program" class="mw-redirect" title="Sputnik program">Sputnik program</a>

<ul><li><a href="Sputnik_crisis" title="Sputnik crisis">Sputnik crisis</a> (1957)</li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Vostok_programme" title="Vostok programme">Vostok program</a> (1960–1963)</li>

<li><a href="Fractional_Orbital_Bombardment_System" title="Fractional Orbital Bombardment System">Fractional Orbital Bombardment System</a> (1960–1982)</li>

<li><a href="Soviet_crewed_lunar_programs" title="Soviet crewed lunar programs">Soviet crewed lunar programs</a> (1961–1976)</li>

<li><a href="Voskhod_programme" title="Voskhod programme">Voskhod program</a> (1964–1966)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Brezhnev</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Soyuz_(spacecraft)" title="Soyuz (spacecraft)">Soyuz program</a> (1967–)</li>

<li><a href="Interkosmos" title="Interkosmos">Interkosmos</a> (1967–1991)</li>

<li><a href="Salyut_programme" title="Salyut programme">Salyut program</a> (1971–1986)</li>

<li><a href="Almaz" title="Almaz">Almaz</a> (1973–1977)</li>

<li><a href="Buran_programme" title="Buran programme">Buran program</a> (1974–1993)</li>

<li><a href="Apollo%E2%80%93Soyuz" title="Apollo–Soyuz">Apollo–Soyuz</a> (1975)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Gorbachev</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Roscosmos" title="Roscosmos">Roscosmos</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Yeltsin20" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Yeltsin</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Gore%E2%80%93Chernomyrdin_Commission" title="Gore–Chernomyrdin Commission">Gore–Chernomyrdin Commission</a></li>

<li><a href="International_Space_Station" title="International Space Station">ISS</a> (1993–)

<ul><li><a href="Shuttle%E2%80%93Mir_program" title="Shuttle–Mir program">Shuttle–Mir program</a></li>

<li><a href="International_Space_Station_programme" title="International Space Station programme">ISS programme</a></li>

<li><a href="Politics_of_the_International_Space_Station" title="Politics of the International Space Station">Politics</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Medvedev</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Medvedev_modernisation_programme" title="Medvedev modernisation programme">Medvedev modernisation programme</a></li>

<li><a href="Military_doctrine_of_Russia#2010_military_doctrine" title="Military doctrine of Russia">2010 Military doctrine</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Putin</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="United_Rocket_and_Space_Corporation" title="United Rocket and Space Corporation">United Rocket and Space Corporation</a> (2013–2015)</li>

<li><a href="Military_doctrine_of_Russia#2014_military_doctrine" title="Military doctrine of Russia">2014 Military doctrine</a></li>

<li><a href="Roscosmos" title="Roscosmos">2015 Creation of Roscosmos</a></li>

<li>Mars

<ul><li><a href="MARS-500" title="MARS-500">MARS-500 study</a></li>

<li><a href="ExoMars" title="ExoMars">ExoMars</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other policies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="National_Space_Program" title="National Space Program">Australian space program</a></li>

<li><a href="Brazilian_space_program" title="Brazilian space program">Brazilian space program</a></li>

<li><a href="United_Arab_Emirates_Space_Agency" title="United Arab Emirates Space Agency">Emirati space program</a></li>

<li><a href="Japanese_space_program" title="Japanese space program">Japanese space program</a></li>

<li><a href="Kazakh_space_program" title="Kazakh space program">Kazakh space program</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_programme_of_Kenya" title="Space programme of Kenya">Kenyan space program</a></li>

<li><a href="Lebanese_space_program" title="Lebanese space program">Lebanese space program</a></li>

<li><a href="North_Korean_space_program" title="North Korean space program">North Korean space program</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_%26_Upper_Atmosphere_Research_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="Space & Upper Atmosphere Research Commission">Pakistani space program</a>

<ul><li><a href="Space_programme_2040" class="mw-redirect" title="Space programme 2040">Space programme 2040</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Philippine_space_program" title="Philippine space program">Philippine space program</a></li>

<li><a href="South_Korean_space_program" title="South Korean space program">South Korean space program</a></li>

<li><a href="Ugandan_space_initiatives" title="Ugandan space initiatives">Ugandan space initiatives</a></li>

<li><a href="International_Space_Station_programme" title="International Space Station programme">International Space Station programme</a>

<ul><li><a href="Politics_of_the_International_Space_Station" title="Politics of the International Space Station">Politics of the International Space Station</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">United Nations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="International_Civil_Aviation_Organization" title="International Civil Aviation Organization">International Civil Aviation Organization</a></li>

<li><a href="United_Nations_Office_for_Outer_Space_Affairs" title="United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs">Office for Outer Space Affairs</a>

<ul><li><a href="UN-SPIDER" title="UN-SPIDER">UN-SPIDER</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_Generation_Advisory_Council" title="Space Generation Advisory Council">Space Generation Advisory Council</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="United_Nations_Committee_on_the_Peaceful_Uses_of_Outer_Space" title="United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space">Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space</a></li>

<li><a href="United_Nations_General_Assembly_Fourth_Committee" title="United Nations General Assembly Fourth Committee">General Assembly Fourth Committee</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other intergovernmental<br> or inter-agency bodies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="African_Space_Agency" title="African Space Agency">African Space Agency</a></li>

<li><a href="Consultative_Committee_for_Space_Data_Systems" title="Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems">Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems</a></li>

<li><a href="Committee_on_Earth_Observation_Satellites" title="Committee on Earth Observation Satellites">Committee on Earth Observation Satellites</a></li>

<li><a href="Committee_on_Space_Research" title="Committee on Space Research">Committee on Space Research</a>

<ul><li><a href="International_Planetary_Data_Alliance" title="International Planetary Data Alliance">International Planetary Data Alliance</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="International_Cospas-Sarsat_Programme" title="International Cospas-Sarsat Programme">International Cospas-Sarsat Programme</a></li>

<li><a href="Group_on_Earth_Observations" title="Group on Earth Observations">Group on Earth Observations</a></li>

<li><a href="Global_Standards_Collaboration" title="Global Standards Collaboration">Global Standards Collaboration</a></li>

<li><a href="Inter-Agency_Space_Debris_Coordination_Committee" title="Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee">Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee</a></li>

<li><a href="International_Charter_'Space_and_Major_Disasters'" class="mw-redirect" title="International Charter 'Space and Major Disasters'">International Charter 'Space and Major Disasters'</a></li>

<li><a href="International_Mobile_Satellite_Organization" title="International Mobile Satellite Organization">International Mobile Satellite Organization</a></li>

<li>International Space Exploration Coordination Group</li>

<li><a href="International_Space_Station_Multilateral_Coordination_Board" title="International Space Station Multilateral Coordination Board">International Space Station Multilateral Coordination Board</a></li>

<li><a href="International_Telecommunications_Satellite_Organization" title="International Telecommunications Satellite Organization">International Telecommunications Satellite Organization</a></li>

<li><a href="Intersputnik" title="Intersputnik">Intersputnik</a></li>

<li><a href="Orbital_Debris_Co-ordination_Working_Group" title="Orbital Debris Co-ordination Working Group">Orbital Debris Co-ordination Working Group</a></li>

<li><a href="Regional_African_Satellite_Communication_Organization" title="Regional African Satellite Communication Organization">Regional African Satellite Communication Organization</a></li>

<li><a href="Arab_Satellite_Communications_Organization" title="Arab Satellite Communications Organization">Arab Satellite Communications Organization</a></li>

<li><a href="Asia-Pacific_Space_Cooperation_Organization" title="Asia-Pacific Space Cooperation Organization">Asia-Pacific Space Cooperation Organization</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Space_law" title="Space law">Space law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Partial_Test_Ban_Treaty" class="mw-redirect" title="Partial Test Ban Treaty">Partial Test Ban Treaty</a> (1963)</li>

<li><a href="Outer_Space_Treaty" title="Outer Space Treaty">Outer Space Treaty</a> (1967)</li>

<li><a href="Rescue_Agreement" title="Rescue Agreement">Rescue Agreement</a> (1968)</li>

<li><a href="Space_Liability_Convention" title="Space Liability Convention">Space Liability Convention</a> (1972)</li>

<li><a href="Agreement_Concerning_Cooperation_in_the_Exploration_and_Use_of_Outer_Space_for_Peaceful_Purposes" title="Agreement Concerning Cooperation in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space for Peaceful Purposes">US-USSR Cooperation Agreement</a> (1972)</li>

<li><a href="Convention_Relating_to_the_Distribution_of_Programme-Carrying_Signals_Transmitted_by_Satellite" title="Convention Relating to the Distribution of Programme-Carrying Signals Transmitted by Satellite">Satellite Convention</a> (1974)</li>

<li><a href="Registration_Convention" title="Registration Convention">Registration Convention</a> (1975)</li>

<li><a href="Bogota_Declaration" title="Bogota Declaration">Bogota Declaration</a> (1976)</li>

<li><a href="Moon_Treaty" title="Moon Treaty">Moon Treaty</a> (1979)</li>

<li><a href="Prevention_of_an_Arms_Race_in_Outer_Space" title="Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space">Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space</a> (1981)</li>

<li><a href="International_Cospas-Sarsat_Programme" title="International Cospas-Sarsat Programme">International Cospas-Sarsat Programme Agreement</a> (1988)</li>

<li><a href="International_Space_Station_Intergovernmental_Agreement" class="mw-redirect" title="International Space Station Intergovernmental Agreement">International Space Station Intergovernmental Agreement</a> (1998)</li>

<li><a href="International_Docking_System_Standard" title="International Docking System Standard">International Docking System Standard</a></li>

<li><a href="Cape_Town_Treaty#Space_Assets" title="Cape Town Treaty">Cape Town Treaty, Space Assets protocol</a> (2012)</li>

<li><a href="Artemis_Accords" title="Artemis Accords">Artemis Accords</a> (2020)</li>

<li><a href="Space_jurisdiction" title="Space jurisdiction">Space jurisdiction</a></li>

<li><a href="Common_heritage_of_mankind" class="mw-redirect" title="Common heritage of mankind">Common heritage of mankind</a></li>

<li><a href="Extraterrestrial_real_estate" title="Extraterrestrial real estate">Extraterrestrial real estate</a></li>

<li><a href="Astronomical_naming_conventions" title="Astronomical naming conventions">Astronomical naming conventions</a></li>

<li><a href="ITU_Radio_Regulations" title="ITU Radio Regulations">ITU Radio Regulations</a></li>

<li><a href="Consultative_Committee_for_Space_Data_Systems" title="Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems">CCSDS standards</a></li>

<li><a href="Orbital_Debris_Co-ordination_Working_Group" title="Orbital Debris Co-ordination Working Group">ODCWG standards</a></li>

<li><a href="Committee_on_Earth_Observation_Satellites" title="Committee on Earth Observation Satellites">CEOS standards</a></li>

<li><a href="Committee_on_Space_Research" title="Committee on Space Research">COSPAR standards</a>

<ul><li><a href="International_Designator" title="International Designator">International Designator</a></li>

<li><a href="International_Planetary_Data_Alliance" title="International Planetary Data Alliance">IPDA standards</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Global_Standards_Collaboration" title="Global Standards Collaboration">GSC standards</a></li>

<li><a href="Group_on_Earth_Observations" title="Group on Earth Observations">GEO standards</a></li>

<li>ISECG standards</li>

<li>Various conventions, treaties, agreements, memorandums, charters or declarations establishing and governing intergovernmental organisations or inter-agency bodies dealing with space affairs</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Commercial_use_of_space" title="Commercial use of space">Commercial use</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Space_industry" title="Space industry">Space industry</a>

<ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="India" title="India"></a></span></span> <a href="Space_industry_of_India" title="Space industry of India">India</a></li>

<li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="Russia" title="Russia"></a></span></span> <a href="Space_industry_of_Russia" title="Space industry of Russia">Russia</a></li>

<li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom"></a></span></span> <a href="Aerospace_industry_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Aerospace industry in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li>

<li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="United_States" title="United States"></a></span></span> <a href="Commercial_Spaceflight_Federation" title="Commercial Spaceflight Federation">United States</a></li>

<li><a href="Private_spaceflight" title="Private spaceflight">Private spaceflight</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_launch_market_competition" title="Space launch market competition">Launch market competition</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Space_tourism" title="Space tourism">Space tourism</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_advertising" title="Space advertising">Space advertising</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_technology" title="Space technology">Space technology</a></li>

<li><a href="Space-based_economy" title="Space-based economy">Space-based economy</a>

<ul><li><a href="Space_trade" title="Space trade">Space trade</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_manufacturing" title="Space manufacturing">Space manufacturing</a></li>

<li><a href="Lunar_resources" title="Lunar resources">Lunar resources</a>

<ul><li><a href="Project_Harvest_Moon" title="Project Harvest Moon">Project Harvest Moon</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Asteroid_mining" title="Asteroid mining">Asteroid mining</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Militarisation_of_space" title="Militarisation of space">Militarisation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="List_of_space_forces%2C_units%2C_and_formations" title="List of space forces, units, and formations">Space forces,<br> units and formations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Space_force" title="Space force">Space forces</a>

<ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="Australia" title="Australia"></a></span></span> <a href="Royal_Australian_Air_Force" title="Royal Australian Air Force">Australia</a></li>

<li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="Brazil" title="Brazil"></a></span></span> <a href="Brazilian_Air_Force" title="Brazilian Air Force">Brazil</a></li>

<li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="Canada" title="Canada"></a></span></span> <a href="Royal_Canadian_Air_Force" title="Royal Canadian Air Force">Canada</a></li>

<li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="China" title="China"></a></span></span> <a href="People's_Liberation_Army_Strategic_Support_Force" title="People's Liberation Army Strategic Support Force">China</a></li>

<li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="Colombia" title="Colombia"></a></span></span> <a href="Colombian_Aerospace_Force" title="Colombian Aerospace Force">Colombia</a></li>

<li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="France" title="France"></a></span></span> <a href="French_Air_and_Space_Force" title="French Air and Space Force">France</a></li>

<li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="Germany" title="Germany"></a></span></span> <a href="German_Air_Force" title="German Air Force">Germany</a></li>

<li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="Iran" title="Iran"></a></span></span> Iran

<li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="Israel" title="Israel"></a></span></span> <a href="Israeli_Air_Force" title="Israeli Air Force">Israel</a></li>

<li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="Japan" title="Japan"></a></span></span> <a href="Japan_Air_Self_Defense_Force" class="mw-redirect" title="Japan Air Self Defense Force">Japan</a></li>

<li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="Netherlands" title="Netherlands"></a></span></span> <a href="Royal_Netherlands_Air_and_Space_Force" title="Royal Netherlands Air and Space Force">Netherlands</a></li>

<li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="New_Zealand" title="New Zealand"></a></span></span> <a href="Royal_New_Zealand_Air_Force" title="Royal New Zealand Air Force">New Zealand</a></li>

<li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="North_Korea" title="North Korea"></a></span></span> <a href="Korean_People's_Army_Air_Force" title="Korean People's Army Air Force">North Korea</a></li>

<li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="Pakistan" title="Pakistan"></a></span></span> <a href="Pakistan_Air_Force" title="Pakistan Air Force">Pakistan</a></li>

<li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="Russia" title="Russia"></a></span></span> <a href="Russian_Space_Forces" title="Russian Space Forces">Russia</a></li>

<li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="South_Korea" title="South Korea"></a></span></span> <a href="Republic_of_Korea_Air_Force" title="Republic of Korea Air Force">South Korea</a></li>

<li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="Spain" title="Spain"></a></span></span> <a href="Spanish_Air_and_Space_Force" title="Spanish Air and Space Force">Spain</a></li>

<li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="Thailand" title="Thailand"></a></span></span> <a href="Royal_Thai_Air_Force" title="Royal Thai Air Force">Thailand</a></li>

<li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="Turkey" title="Turkey"></a></span></span> <a href="Turkish_Air_Force" title="Turkish Air Force">Turkey</a></li>

<li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom"></a></span></span> <a href="Royal_Air_Force" title="Royal Air Force">United Kingdom</a></li>

<li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="United_States" title="United States"></a></span></span> <a href="United_States_Space_Force" title="United States Space Force">United States</a>

<ul><li><a href="History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force" title="History of the United States Space Force">History</a></li>

<li><a href="Structure_of_the_United_States_Space_Force" title="Structure of the United States Space Force">Structure</a></li></ul></li>

<li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="Vietnam" title="Vietnam"></a></span></span> <a href="Vietnam_People's_Air_Force" title="Vietnam People's Air Force">Vietnam</a></li>

<li><a href="Ranks_and_insignia_of_space_forces" title="Ranks and insignia of space forces">Ranks and insignia</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Space_command" title="Space command">Space commands</a>

<ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="France" title="France"></a></span></span> <a href="French_Space_Command" title="French Space Command">France</a></li>

<li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="India" title="India"></a></span></span> <a href="Defence_Space_Agency" title="Defence Space Agency">India</a></li>

<li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="Italy" title="Italy"></a></span></span> <a href="Space_Operations_Command_(Italy)" title="Space Operations Command (Italy)">Italy</a></li>

<li><span typeof="mw:File"></span> <a href="North_American_Aerospace_Defense_Command" class="mw-redirect" title="North American Aerospace Defense Command">NORAD</a></li>

<li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom"></a></span></span> <a href="United_Kingdom_Space_Command" title="United Kingdom Space Command">United Kingdom</a></li>

<li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="United_States" title="United States"></a></span></span> <a href="United_States_Space_Command" title="United States Space Command">United States</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Space_warfare" title="Space warfare">Space warfare</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Space_domain_awareness" title="Space domain awareness">Space domain awareness</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_weapon" title="Space weapon">Space weapon</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-satellite_weapon" title="Anti-satellite weapon">Anti-satellite weapon</a>

<ul><li><a href="ASAT_program_of_China" title="ASAT program of China">China</a></li>

<li><a href="Indian_Ballistic_Missile_Defence_Programme#Prithvi_Defence_Vehicle_Mark_2" title="Indian Ballistic Missile Defence Programme">India</a></li>

<li><a href="A-235_anti-ballistic_missile_system" title="A-235 anti-ballistic missile system">Russia</a></li>

<li><a href="RIM-161_Standard_Missile_3" title="RIM-161 Standard Missile 3">United States</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Kinetic_bombardment" title="Kinetic bombardment">Kinetic bombardment</a></li>

<li><a href="Kill_vehicle" title="Kill vehicle">Kill vehicle</a></li>

<li><a href="Missile_defense" title="Missile defense">Missile defense</a></li>

<li><a href="Military_satellite" title="Military satellite">Military satellite</a></li>

<li><a href="Reconnaissance_satellite" title="Reconnaissance satellite">Reconnaissance satellite</a></li>

<li><a href="Spaceplane" title="Spaceplane">Spaceplane</a></li>

<li><a href="Satellite#Jamming" title="Satellite">Satellite jamming</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Space_advocacy" title="Space advocacy">Space advocacy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Air_%26_Space_Forces_Association" title="Air & Space Forces Association">Air & Space Forces Association</a></li>

<li><a href="Alliance_for_Space_Development" title="Alliance for Space Development">Alliance for Space Development</a>

<ul><li><a href="National_Space_Society" title="National Space Society">National Space Society</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_Frontier_Foundation" title="Space Frontier Foundation">Space Frontier Foundation</a></li>

<li><a href="Mars_Society" title="Mars Society">Mars Society</a></li>

<li><a href="Moon_Society" title="Moon Society">Moon Society</a></li>

<li><a href="Students_for_the_Exploration_and_Development_of_Space" title="Students for the Exploration and Development of Space">Students for the Exploration and Development of Space</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Arthur_C._Clarke_Institute_for_Modern_Technologies" title="Arthur C. Clarke Institute for Modern Technologies">Arthur C. Clarke Institute for Modern Technologies</a></li>

<li><a href="British_Interplanetary_Society" title="British Interplanetary Society">British Interplanetary Society</a></li>

<li><a href="Coalition_for_Deep_Space_Exploration" title="Coalition for Deep Space Exploration">Coalition for Deep Space Exploration</a></li>

<li><a href="International_Academy_of_Astronautics" title="International Academy of Astronautics">International Academy of Astronautics</a></li>

<li><a href="International_Astronautical_Federation" title="International Astronautical Federation">International Astronautical Federation</a></li>

<li><a href="International_Astronomical_Union" title="International Astronomical Union">International Astronomical Union</a></li>

<li><a href="Lunar_Explorers_Society" title="Lunar Explorers Society">Lunar Explorers Society</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_Exploration_Alliance" title="Space Exploration Alliance">Space Exploration Alliance</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_Fellowship" title="Space Fellowship">Space Fellowship</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_Force_Association" title="Space Force Association">Space Force Association</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_Foundation" title="Space Foundation">Space Foundation</a></li>

<li><a href="The_Planetary_Society" title="The Planetary Society">The Planetary Society</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Public-sector_space_agencies312" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Public-sector_space_agencies312" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="List_of_government_space_agencies" title="List of government space agencies">Public-sector space agencies</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pan-African<br>and pan-Arab</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Regional_African_Satellite_Communication_Organization" title="Regional African Satellite Communication Organization">RASCOM</a></li>

<li><a href="Arab_Satellite_Communications_Organization" title="Arab Satellite Communications Organization">Arabsat</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="National_Authority_for_Remote_Sensing_and_Space_Sciences" title="National Authority for Remote Sensing and Space Sciences">NARSS</a></li></ul></li>

<li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span></span> <a href="Ethiopian_Space_Science_and_Technology_Institute" title="Ethiopian Space Science and Technology Institute">ESSTI</a></li>

<li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span></span> <a href="Ghana_Space_Science_and_Technology_Centre" title="Ghana Space Science and Technology Centre">GSSTC</a></li>

<li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span></span> <a href="National_Space_Research_and_Development_Agency" title="National Space Research and Development Agency">NASRDA</a></li>

<li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span></span> <a href="South_African_National_Space_Agency" title="South African National Space Agency">SANSA</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Americas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North America</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span></span> <a href="National_Environmental_Satellite%2C_Data%2C_and_Information_Service" title="National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service">NESDIS</a>

<li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span></span> <a href="United_States_Space_Command" title="United States Space Command">USSPACECOM</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Latin America<br>and the Caribbean</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span></span> <a href="National_Space_Activities_Commission" title="National Space Activities Commission">CONAE</a></li>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pan-Asian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Asia-Pacific_Space_Cooperation_Organization" title="Asia-Pacific Space Cooperation Organization">APSCO</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Central Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span></span> <a href="KazCosmos" title="KazCosmos">KazCosmos</a><sup><small>1</small></sup></li>

<li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span></span> <a href="Roscosmos" title="Roscosmos">Roscosmos</a><sup><small>1</small></sup>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">East Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="State_Administration_of_Science%2C_Technology_and_Industry_for_National_Defense" title="State Administration of Science, Technology and Industry for National Defense">SASTIND</a></li>

<li>CGWIC</li></ul></li>

<li><a href="People's_Liberation_Army_Aerospace_Force" title="People's Liberation Army Aerospace Force">PLAASF</a></li>

<li><a href="China_Aerospace_Science_and_Industry_Corporation" title="China Aerospace Science and Industry Corporation">CASIC</a></li></ul></li>

<li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span></span> <a href="KAIST_Satellite_Technology_Research_Center" title="KAIST Satellite Technology Research Center">SaTReC</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span></span> <a href="Space_Research_and_Remote_Sensing_Organization" title="Space Research and Remote Sensing Organization">SPARRSO</a></li>

<ul><li><a href="Antrix_Corporation" title="Antrix Corporation">Antrix Corp</a></li>

<li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span></span> <a href="SUPARCO" title="SUPARCO">SUPARCO</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Southeast Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Indonesian_Space_Agency" title="Indonesian Space Agency">INASA</a></li></ul></li>

<li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span></span> <a href="Philippine_Space_Agency" title="Philippine Space Agency">PhilSA</a></li>

<li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span></span> <a href="Geo-Informatics_and_Space_Technology_Development_Agency" title="Geo-Informatics and Space Technology Development Agency">GISTDA</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">West Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span></span> <a href="ArmCosmos" title="ArmCosmos">ArmCosmos</a><sup><small>1</small></sup></li>

<li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span></span> <a href="Islamic_Revolutionary_Guard_Corps_Aerospace_Force" title="Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps Aerospace Force">NEHSA</a></li>

<ul><li><a href="King_Abdulaziz_City_for_Science_and_Technology" title="King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology">KACST-SRI</a></li></ul></li>

<ul><li><a href="T%C3%9CB%C4%B0TAK_Space_Technologies_Research_Institute" title="TÜBİTAK Space Technologies Research Institute">TÜBİTAK UZAY</a></li></ul></li>

<li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span></span> <a href="United_Arab_Emirates_Space_Agency" title="United Arab Emirates Space Agency">UAESA</a> (<a href="Mohammed_bin_Rashid_Space_Centre" title="Mohammed bin Rashid Space Centre">MBRSC</a>)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pan-European</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="European_Committee_for_Standardization" title="European Committee for Standardization">CEN</a>/<a href="European_Committee_for_Electrotechnical_Standardization" title="European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization">CENELEC</a></li>

<li><a href="Eurocontrol" title="Eurocontrol">Eurocontrol</a></li>

<li><a href="European_Space_Research_and_Technology_Centre" title="European Space Research and Technology Centre">ESTEC</a></li>

<li><a href="ESA_Centre_for_Earth_Observation" title="ESA Centre for Earth Observation">ESRIN</a></li>

<li><a href="European_Centre_for_Space_Applications_and_Telecommunications" title="European Centre for Space Applications and Telecommunications">ECSAT</a></li>

<ul><li><a href="ESTRACK" title="ESTRACK">ESTRACK</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Guiana_Space_Centre" title="Guiana Space Centre">Guiana Space Centre</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="European_Telecommunications_Satellite_Organization" title="European Telecommunications Satellite Organization">EUTELSAT IGO</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="European_Union" title="European Union">EU</a> and <a href="European_Economic_Area" title="European Economic Area">EEA</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span></span> <a href="Directorate-General_for_Defence_Industry_and_Space" title="Directorate-General for Defence Industry and Space">DG DEFIS</a>

<ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span></span> <a href="European_Union_Agency_for_the_Space_Programme" title="European Union Agency for the Space Programme">EUSPA</a></li></ul></li>

<li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span></span> <a href="European_Union_Satellite_Centre" title="European Union Satellite Centre">EU SatCen</a></li>

<li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span></span> <a href="Body_of_European_Regulators_for_Electronic_Communications" title="Body of European Regulators for Electronic Communications">BEREC</a></li>

<li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span></span> <a href="Federal_Public_Planning_Service_Science_Policy" title="Federal Public Planning Service Science Policy">BELSPO</a>

<li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span></span> <a href="DTU_Space" class="mw-redirect" title="DTU Space">DTU Space</a></li>

<li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span></span> <a href="Polish_Space_Agency" title="Polish Space Agency">POLSA</a><sup><small>2</small></sup>

<li><a href="National_Broadcasting_Council" title="National Broadcasting Council">KRRiT</a></li>

<li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span></span> <a href="Portugal_Space" title="Portugal Space">PTSPACE</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span></span> <a href="ArmCosmos" title="ArmCosmos">ArmCosmos</a><sup><small>1</small></sup></li>

<li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span></span> <a href="KazCosmos" title="KazCosmos">KazCosmos</a><sup><small>1</small></sup></li>

<li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span></span> <a href="Roscosmos" title="Roscosmos">Roscosmos</a><sup><small>1</small></sup>

<ul><li><a href="T%C3%9CB%C4%B0TAK_Space_Technologies_Research_Institute" title="TÜBİTAK Space Technologies Research Institute">TÜBİTAK UZAY</a></li></ul></li>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Oceania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="CSIRO" title="CSIRO">CSIRO</a></li></ul></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">World</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Consultative_Committee_for_Space_Data_Systems" title="Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems">CCSDS</a></li>

<li><a href="Committee_on_Space_Research" title="Committee on Space Research">COSPAR</a>

<li><a href="International_Cospas-Sarsat_Programme" title="International Cospas-Sarsat Programme">Cospas-Sarsat</a></li>

<li><a href="International_Charter_'Space_and_Major_Disasters'" class="mw-redirect" title="International Charter 'Space and Major Disasters'">ICSMD</a></li>

<li>ISECG</li>

<li><a href="Intersputnik" title="Intersputnik">Intersputnik</a></li>

<li><a href="Orbital_Debris_Co-ordination_Working_Group" title="Orbital Debris Co-ordination Working Group">ODCWG</a></li>

<li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span></span> <a href="United_Nations_Committee_on_the_Peaceful_Uses_of_Outer_Space" title="United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space">UNCOPUOS</a></li>

<li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span></span> <a href="United_Nations_Office_for_Outer_Space_Affairs" title="United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs">UNOOSA</a></li>

<li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span></span> <a href="UNOSAT" title="UNOSAT">UNOSAT</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Former</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span></span> <a href="National_Institute_of_Aeronautics_and_Space" title="National Institute of Aeronautics and Space">LAPAN</a></li>

<li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span></span> <a href="National_Space_Development_Agency_of_Japan" title="National Space Development Agency of Japan">NASDA</a></li>

<li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span></span> <a href="Interkosmos" title="Interkosmos">Interkosmos</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li>See also: <a href="Timeline_of_first_orbital_launches_by_country" title="Timeline of first orbital launches by country">Timeline of first orbital launches by country</a></li>

<li><sup><small>1</small></sup> Preceded by the </li>

<li><sup><small>2</small></sup> Preceded by <a href="Interkosmos" title="Interkosmos">Interkosmos</a> participation</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Soviet_Union&#124;link=Soviet_Union_Soviet_Union–United_States_relations_23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=United_States&#124;link=United_States550" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Soviet_Union&#124;link=Soviet_Union_Soviet_Union–United_States_relations_23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=United_States&#124;link=United_States550" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union"></a></span></span> <a href="Soviet_Union%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Soviet Union–United States relations">Soviet Union–United States relations</a> <span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="United_States" title="United States"></a></span></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Diplomatic posts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Embassy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Embassy_of_Russia%2C_Washington%2C_D.C." title="Embassy of Russia, Washington, D.C.">Washington D.C.</a>

<ul><li><a href="List_of_ambassadors_of_Russia_to_the_United_States" title="List of ambassadors of Russia to the United States">Soviet Ambassadors</a></li>

<li><a href="Russian_ambassador's_residence_in_Washington%2C_D.C." title="Russian ambassador's residence in Washington, D.C.">Mrs. George Pullman House</a></li></ul></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Embassy_of_the_United_States%2C_Moscow" title="Embassy of the United States, Moscow">Moscow</a>

<ul><li><a href="List_of_ambassadors_of_the_United_States_to_Russia" title="List of ambassadors of the United States to Russia">US Ambassadors</a></li>

<li><a href="Spaso_House" title="Spaso House">Spaso House</a></li>

<li><a href="Embassy_of_the_United_States%2C_Kuybyshev" title="Embassy of the United States, Kuybyshev">Kuybyshev</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Consulates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="John_Henry_Hammond_House" title="John Henry Hammond House">John Hammond House</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Consulate_General_of_Russia%2C_San_Francisco" title="Consulate General of Russia, San Francisco">San Francisco</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Consulate_General_of_the_United_States%2C_Saint_Petersburg" title="Consulate General of the United States, Saint Petersburg">Saint Petersburg</a></li>

<li><a href="Consulate_General_of_the_United_States%2C_Vladivostok" title="Consulate General of the United States, Vladivostok">Vladivostok</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Soviet_Union_and_the_United_Nations" title="Soviet Union and the United Nations">United Nations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Permanent_Mission_of_Russia_to_the_United_Nations" title="Permanent Mission of Russia to the United Nations">Headquarters</a>

<ul><li><a href="Permanent_Representative_of_Russia_to_the_United_Nations#Permanent_Representatives_of_the_Soviet_Union_to_the_United_Nations" title="Permanent Representative of Russia to the United Nations">Representatives</a></li>

<li><a href="Russian_Mission_Residency" title="Russian Mission Residency">Russian Mission Residency</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Elmcroft_Estate" title="Elmcroft Estate">Elmcroft Estate</a></li>

<li><a href="Killenworth" title="Killenworth">Killenworth</a></li>

<li><a href="Lothrop_Mansion" title="Lothrop Mansion">Lothrop Mansion</a></li>

<li><a href="Pioneer_Point%2C_Maryland" title="Pioneer Point, Maryland">Pioneer Point</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Diplomacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="List_of_Soviet_Union%E2%80%93United_States_summits#World_War_II_/_Allies_of_World_War_II" title="List of Soviet Union–United States summits">World War II<br>Summits</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Declaration_of_the_Four_Nations" title="Declaration of the Four Nations">Declaration of the Four Nations</a></li>

<li><a href="Lend-Lease" title="Lend-Lease">Lend-Lease</a>

<ul><li><a href="Lend-Lease_Sherman_tanks" title="Lend-Lease Sherman tanks">Lend-Lease Sherman tanks</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Moscow_Conference_(1941)" title="Moscow Conference (1941)">Moscow Conference (1941)</a></li>

<li><a href="Moscow_Conference_(1942)" title="Moscow Conference (1942)">Moscow Conference (1942)</a></li>

<li><a href="Moscow_Conference_(1943)" title="Moscow Conference (1943)">Moscow Conference (1943)</a></li>

<li><a href="Moscow_Conference_(1944)" title="Moscow Conference (1944)">Moscow Conference (1944)</a></li>

<li><a href="Moscow_Conference_(1945)" title="Moscow Conference (1945)">Moscow Conference (1945)</a></li>

<li><a href="Potsdam_Conference" title="Potsdam Conference">Potsdam Conference</a>

<ul><li><a href="Council_of_Foreign_Ministers" title="Council of Foreign Ministers">Council of Foreign Ministers</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Tehran_Conference" title="Tehran Conference">Tehran Conference</a></li>

<li><a href="Yalta_Conference" title="Yalta Conference">Yalta Conference</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="List_of_Soviet_Union%E2%80%93United_States_summits#Cold_War" title="List of Soviet Union–United States summits">Cold War<br>Summits</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="1973_United_States%E2%80%93Soviet_Union_wheat_deal" title="1973 United States–Soviet Union wheat deal">1973 United States–Soviet Union wheat deal</a></li>

<li><a href="Berlin_Conference_(1954)" title="Berlin Conference (1954)">Berlin Conference (1954)</a></li>

<li><a href="Coordinating_Committee_for_Multilateral_Export_Controls" title="Coordinating Committee for Multilateral Export Controls">Coordinating Committee for Multilateral Export Controls</a></li>

<li><a href="Council_for_American%E2%80%93Soviet_Trade" title="Council for American–Soviet Trade">Council for American–Soviet Trade</a></li>

<li><a href="Dartmouth_Conference" title="Dartmouth Conference">Dartmouth Conference</a></li>

<li><a href="Eighteen_Nation_Committee_on_Disarmament" title="Eighteen Nation Committee on Disarmament">Eighteen Nation Committee on Disarmament</a></li>

<li><a href="European_Advisory_Commission" title="European Advisory Commission">European Advisory Commission</a></li>

<li><a href="Geneva_Accords_(1988)" title="Geneva Accords (1988)">Geneva Accords (1988)</a></li>

<li><a href="Geneva_Conference_(1973)" title="Geneva Conference (1973)">Geneva Conference (1973)</a></li>

<li><a href="Geneva_Summit_(1955)" title="Geneva Summit (1955)">Geneva Summit (1955)</a></li>

<li><a href="Geneva_Summit_(1985)" title="Geneva Summit (1985)">Geneva Summit (1985)</a></li>

<li><a href="Glassboro_Summit_Conference" title="Glassboro Summit Conference">Glassboro Summit Conference</a></li>

<li><a href="Governors_Island_Summit" title="Governors Island Summit">Governors Island Summit</a></li>

<li><a href="Helsinki_Summit_(1990)" title="Helsinki Summit (1990)">Helsinki Summit (1990)</a></li>

<li><a href="Lacy-Zarubin_Agreement" title="Lacy-Zarubin Agreement">Lacy-Zarubin Agreement</a></li>

<li><a href="Madrid_Conference_of_1991" title="Madrid Conference of 1991">Madrid Conference</a>

<ul><li><a href="Madrid_peace_conference_letter_of_invitation" title="Madrid peace conference letter of invitation">Letter</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Malta_Summit" title="Malta Summit">Malta Summit</a></li>

<li><a href="Moscow_Summit_(1972)" title="Moscow Summit (1972)">Moscow Summit (1972)</a></li>

<li><a href="Moscow_Summit_(1974)" title="Moscow Summit (1974)">Moscow Summit (1974)</a></li>

<li><a href="Moscow_Summit_(1988)" title="Moscow Summit (1988)">Moscow Summit (1988)</a></li>

<li><a href="Mutual_and_Balanced_Force_Reductions" title="Mutual and Balanced Force Reductions">Mutual and Balanced Force Reductions</a></li>

<li><a href="NATO_Double-Track_Decision" title="NATO Double-Track Decision">NATO Double-Track Decision</a></li>

<li><a href="Reykjav%C3%ADk_Summit" title="Reykjavík Summit">Reykjavík Summit</a></li>

<li><a href="Stalin_Note" title="Stalin Note">Stalin Note</a></li>

<li><a href="State_visit_by_Nikita_Khrushchev_to_the_United_States" title="State visit by Nikita Khrushchev to the United States">State visit by Nikita Khrushchev to the United States</a></li>

<li><a href="United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_135" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 135">United Nations Security Council Resolution 135</a></li>

<li><a href="United_States_restitution_to_the_Soviet_Union" title="United States restitution to the Soviet Union">United States restitution to the Soviet Union</a></li>

<li><a href="US/USSR_Joint_Statement_on_Uniform_Acceptance_of_Rules_of_International_Law_Governing_Innocent_Passage" title="US/USSR Joint Statement on Uniform Acceptance of Rules of International Law Governing Innocent Passage">US/USSR Acceptance of Law Governing Innocent Passage</a></li>

<li><a href="Vienna_Summit" title="Vienna Summit">Vienna Summit</a></li>

<li><a href="Washington_Summit_(1987)" title="Washington Summit (1987)">Washington Summit (1987)</a></li>

<li><a href="Washington_Summit_(1973)" title="Washington Summit (1973)">Washington Summit (1973)</a></li>

<li><a href="Vladivostok_Summit_Meeting_on_Arms_Control" title="Vladivostok Summit Meeting on Arms Control">Vladivostok Summit Meeting on Arms Control</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Policies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Containment" title="Containment">Containment</a></li>

<li><a href="D%C3%A9tente" title="Détente">Détente</a></li>

<li><a href="Linkage_(policy)" title="Linkage (policy)">Linkage</a></li>

<li><a href="Rollback" title="Rollback">Rollback</a></li>

<li><a href="Stimson_Doctrine" title="Stimson Doctrine">Stimson Doctrine</a>

<ul><li><a href="Welles_Declaration" title="Welles Declaration">Welles Declaration</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Triangular_diplomacy" title="Triangular diplomacy">Triangular diplomacy</a></li>

<li><a href="Zero_Option" title="Zero Option">Zero Option</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Speeches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="1989_visit_by_Boris_Yeltsin_to_the_United_States" title="1989 visit by Boris Yeltsin to the United States">1989 visit by Boris Yeltsin to the United States</a></li>

<li><a href="American_University_speech" title="American University speech">American University speech</a></li>

<li><a href="And_you_are_lynching_Negroes" title="And you are lynching Negroes">And you are lynching Negroes</a></li>

<li><a href="Chicken_Kiev_speech" title="Chicken Kiev speech">Chicken Kiev speech</a></li>

<li><a href="Evil_Empire_speech" title="Evil Empire speech">Evil Empire speech</a></li>

<li><a href="Ich_bin_ein_Berliner" title="Ich bin ein Berliner">Ich bin ein Berliner</a></li>

<li><a href="Kitchen_Debate" title="Kitchen Debate">Kitchen Debate</a></li>

<li><a href="Kuzma's_mother" title="Kuzma's mother">Kuzma's mother</a></li>

<li><a href="Shoe-banging_incident" title="Shoe-banging incident">Shoe-banging incident</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Pushinka" title="Pushinka">Pushinka</a></li>

<li><a href="Soviet_Military_Power" title="Soviet Military Power">Soviet Military Power publication</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Historical<br>Relations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Russia%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Russia–United States relations">Russia–United States</a></li>

<li><a href="Russian_Empire%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Russian Empire–United States relations">Russian Empire–United States</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Treaties and<br>Agreements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Arms Control</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="1990_Chemical_Weapons_Accord" title="1990 Chemical Weapons Accord">1990 Chemical Weapons Accord</a></li>

<li><a href="Agreement_on_the_Prevention_of_Nuclear_War" title="Agreement on the Prevention of Nuclear War">Agreement on the Prevention of Nuclear War</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Ballistic_Missile_Treaty" title="Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty">Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty</a></li>

<li><a href="McCloy%E2%80%93Zorin_Accords" title="McCloy–Zorin Accords">McCloy–Zorin Accords</a></li>

<li><a href="Partial_Nuclear_Test_Ban_Treaty" title="Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty">Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty</a></li>

<li><a href="START_I" title="START I">START I</a></li>

<li><a href="Threshold_Test_Ban_Treaty" title="Threshold Test Ban Treaty">Threshold Test Ban Treaty</a></li>

<li><a href="Treaty_on_Conventional_Armed_Forces_in_Europe" title="Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe">Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Space</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Outer_Space_Treaty" title="Outer Space Treaty">Outer Space Treaty</a>

<ul><li><a href="Prevention_of_an_Arms_Race_in_Outer_Space" title="Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space">Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space</a></li></ul></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Territory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Four_Power_Agreement_on_Berlin" title="Four Power Agreement on Berlin">Four Power Agreement on Berlin</a></li>

<li><a href="Treaty_on_the_Final_Settlement_with_Respect_to_Germany" title="Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany">Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany</a></li>

<li><a href="USSR%E2%80%93USA_Maritime_Boundary_Agreement" title="USSR–USA Maritime Boundary Agreement">USSR–USA Maritime Boundary Agreement</a></li>

<li><a href="Wanfried_agreement" title="Wanfried agreement">Wanfried agreement</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">World War II</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Moscow_Declarations" title="Moscow Declarations">Moscow Declarations</a></li>

<li><a href="Potsdam_Agreement" title="Potsdam Agreement">Potsdam Agreement</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Baruch_Plan" title="Baruch Plan">Baruch Plan</a></li>

<li><a href="Moscow%E2%80%93Washington_hotline" title="Moscow–Washington hotline">Moscow–Washington hotline</a></li>

<li><a href="U.S.%E2%80%93Soviet_Incidents_at_Sea_agreement" title="U.S.–Soviet Incidents at Sea agreement">U.S.–Soviet Incidents at Sea agreement</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Legislation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Executive_Order_8484" title="Executive Order 8484">Executive Order 8484</a></li>

<li><a href="Former_Soviet_Union_Demilitarization_Act_of_1992" title="Former Soviet Union Demilitarization Act of 1992">Former Soviet Union Demilitarization Act of 1992</a></li>

<li><a href="FRIENDSHIP_Act_of_1993" title="FRIENDSHIP Act of 1993">FRIENDSHIP Act of 1993</a></li>

<li><a href="Jackson%E2%80%93Vanik_amendment" title="Jackson–Vanik amendment">Jackson–Vanik amendment</a></li>

<li><a href="Russian_Famine_Relief_Act" title="Russian Famine Relief Act">Russian Famine Relief Act</a></li>

<li><a href="Soviet_Nuclear_Threat_Reduction_Act_of_1991" title="Soviet Nuclear Threat Reduction Act of 1991">Soviet Nuclear Threat Reduction Act of 1991</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Science</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Space</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Apollo%E2%80%93Soyuz" title="Apollo–Soyuz">Apollo–Soyuz</a></li>

<li><a href="Bion_(satellite)" title="Bion (satellite)">Bion satellites</a>

<ul><li><a href="Kosmos_782" title="Kosmos 782">Kosmos 782</a></li>

<li><a href="Kosmos_936" title="Kosmos 936">Kosmos 936</a></li>

<li><a href="Kosmos_1129" title="Kosmos 1129">Kosmos 1129</a></li>

<li><a href="Kosmos_1514" title="Kosmos 1514">Kosmos 1514</a></li>

<li><a href="Kosmos_1667" title="Kosmos 1667">Kosmos 1667</a></li>

<li><a href="Kosmos_1887" title="Kosmos 1887">Kosmos 1887</a></li>

<li><a href="Kosmos_2044" title="Kosmos 2044">Kosmos 2044</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="International_Cospas-Sarsat_Programme" title="International Cospas-Sarsat Programme">International Cospas-Sarsat Programme</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a></li>

<li><a href="TOPAZ_nuclear_reactor#TOPAZ-I" title="TOPAZ nuclear reactor">TOPAZ-I</a></li>

<li><a href="U.S.%E2%80%93Soviet_Space_Bridge" title="U.S.–Soviet Space Bridge">U.S.–Soviet Space Bridge</a></li>

<li><a href="Yardymly_(meteorite)" title="Yardymly (meteorite)">Yardymly</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="International_Conference_of_Laser_Applications" title="International Conference of Laser Applications">International Conference of Laser Applications</a></li>

<li><a href="Shvetsov_M-25" title="Shvetsov M-25">Shvetsov M-25</a></li>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Chess</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="US_vs._USSR_radio_chess_match_1945" class="mw-redirect" title="US vs. USSR radio chess match 1945">US vs. USSR radio chess match 1945</a></li>

<li><a href="World_Chess_Championship_1972" title="World Chess Championship 1972">World Chess Championship 1972</a>

<ul><li><a href="Bobby_Fischer" title="Bobby Fischer">Bobby Fischer</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Education</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Anglo-American_School_of_Moscow" title="Anglo-American School of Moscow">Anglo-American School of Moscow</a>

<ul><li><a href="Anglo-American_School_of_St._Petersburg" title="Anglo-American School of St. Petersburg">St. Petersburg</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Russian_Cultural_Center" title="Russian Cultural Center">Russian Cultural Center</a></li>

<li><a href="Russian_Embassy_School_in_Washington%2C_D.C." title="Russian Embassy School in Washington, D.C.">Russian Embassy School in Washington, D.C.</a></li>

<li><a href="Russian_Mission_School_in_New_York" title="Russian Mission School in New York">Russian Mission School in New York</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Literature</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Amerika_(magazine)" title="Amerika (magazine)">Amerika (magazine)</a></li>

<li><a href="Deep_Black_(1986_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Deep Black (1986 book)">Deep Black</a></li>

<li><a href="Eagles_East" title="Eagles East">Eagles East</a></li>

<li><a href="International_Publishers" title="International Publishers">International Publishers</a></li>

<li><a href="Russian_Life" title="Russian Life">Russian Life</a></li>

<li><a href="Sovfoto" title="Sovfoto">Sovfoto</a></li>

<li><a href="The_Admiral's_Daughter" title="The Admiral's Daughter">The Admiral's Daughter</a></li>

<li><a href="X_Article" title="X Article">X Article</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Radio / Music</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Ordinary_People_(The_Box_song)" title="Ordinary People (The Box song)">Ordinary People</a></li>

<li><a href="Radio_Free_Europe/Radio_Liberty" title="Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty">Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Sports</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="1972_Olympic_men's_basketball_final" title="1972 Olympic men's basketball final">1972 Olympic men's basketball final</a></li>

<li><a href="1976_Philadelphia_Flyers%E2%80%93Red_Army_game" title="1976 Philadelphia Flyers–Red Army game">1976 Philadelphia Flyers–Red Army game</a></li>

<li><a href="Glasnost_Bowl" title="Glasnost Bowl">Glasnost Bowl</a></li>

<li><a href="Goodwill_Games" title="Goodwill Games">Goodwill Games</a></li>

<li><a href="Miracle_on_Ice" title="Miracle on Ice">Miracle on Ice</a></li>

<li><a href="Super_Series" title="Super Series">Super Series</a></li>

<li><a href="USA%E2%80%93USSR_Track_and_Field_Dual_Meet_Series" title="USA–USSR Track and Field Dual Meet Series">USA–USSR Track and Field Dual Meet Series</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">TV / Film</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Free_to_Be..._a_Family" title="Free to Be... a Family">Free to Be... a Family</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_Soviet_submissions_for_the_Academy_Award_for_Best_International_Feature_Film" title="List of Soviet submissions for the Academy Award for Best International Feature Film">Soviet submissions for the Academy Award for Best International Feature Film</a></li>

<li><a href="Stalingrad_(1990_film)" title="Stalingrad (1990 film)">Stalingrad</a></li>

<li><a href="The_Extraordinary_Adventures_of_Mr._West_in_the_Land_of_the_Bolsheviks" title="The Extraordinary Adventures of Mr. West in the Land of the Bolsheviks">The Extraordinary Adventures of Mr. West in the Land of the Bolsheviks</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="American_National_Exhibition" title="American National Exhibition">American National Exhibition</a></li>

<li><a href="Apollo-Soyuz_(cigarette)" title="Apollo-Soyuz (cigarette)">Apollo-Soyuz (cigarette)</a></li>

<li><a href="In_Soviet_Georgia" title="In Soviet Georgia">In Soviet Georgia</a></li>

<li><a href="Soviet_Interview_Project" title="Soviet Interview Project">Soviet Interview Project</a></li>

<li><a href="White_Coke" title="White Coke">White Coke</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Cold War</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Origins_of_the_Cold_War" title="Origins of the Cold War">Origins</a></li>

<li><a href="Timeline_of_the_Cold_War" title="Timeline of the Cold War">Timeline</a>

<ul><li><a href="Nuclear_arms_race" title="Nuclear arms race">Nuclear arms race</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a>

<ul><li><a href="Timeline_of_the_Space_Race" title="Timeline of the Space Race">Timeline</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Cold_War_espionage" title="Cold War espionage">Espionage</a>

<ul><li><a href="American_espionage_in_the_Soviet_Union_and_Russian_Federation#Soviet_Union" title="American espionage in the Soviet Union and Russian Federation">Americans</a></li>

<li><a href="Soviet_espionage_in_the_United_States" title="Soviet espionage in the United States">Soviets</a></li>

<li><a href="Atomic_spies" title="Atomic spies">Atomic spies</a></li></ul></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Operations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Operation_Anadyr" title="Operation Anadyr">Operation Anadyr</a></li>

<li><a href="Operation_Breakthrough" title="Operation Breakthrough">Operation Breakthrough</a></li>

<li><a href="Operation_Cedar" title="Operation Cedar">Operation Cedar</a></li>

<li><a href="Operation_Chrome_Dome" title="Operation Chrome Dome">Operation Chrome Dome</a></li>

<li><a href="Operation_Cyclone" title="Operation Cyclone">Operation Cyclone</a></li>

<li><a href="Operation_Denver" title="Operation Denver">Operation Denver</a></li>

<li><a href="Operation_Dropshot" title="Operation Dropshot">Operation Dropshot</a></li>

<li><a href="Operation_Giant_Lance" title="Operation Giant Lance">Operation Giant Lance</a></li>

<li><a href="Operation_Gold" title="Operation Gold">Operation Gold</a></li>

<li><a href="Operation_Ivy_Bells" title="Operation Ivy Bells">Operation Ivy Bells</a></li>

<li><a href="Operation_Keelhaul" title="Operation Keelhaul">Operation Keelhaul</a></li>

<li><a href="Operation_Lincoln" title="Operation Lincoln">Operation Lincoln</a></li>

<li><a href="Operation_Monopoly" title="Operation Monopoly">Operation Monopoly</a></li>

<li><a href="Operation_RYAN" title="Operation RYAN">Operation RYAN</a></li>

<li><a href="Operation_Safe_Haven_(1957)" title="Operation Safe Haven (1957)">Operation Safe Haven (1957)</a></li>

<li><a href="Operation_Shocker" title="Operation Shocker">Operation Shocker</a></li>

<li><a href="Operation_Sunrise_(World_War_II)" title="Operation Sunrise (World War II)">Operation Sunrise</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Projects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Project_Azorian" title="Project Azorian">Project Azorian</a></li>

<li><a href="Project_Coldfeet" title="Project Coldfeet">Project Coldfeet</a></li>

<li><a href="Project_Dark_Gene" title="Project Dark Gene">Project Dark Gene</a></li>

<li><a href="Project_Genetrix" title="Project Genetrix">Project Genetrix</a></li>

<li><a href="Project_Grab_Bag" title="Project Grab Bag">Project Grab Bag</a></li>

<li><a href="Project_HOMERUN" title="Project HOMERUN">Project HOMERUN</a></li>

<li><a href="Project_Hula" title="Project Hula">Project Hula</a></li>

<li><a href="Project_Moby_Dick" title="Project Moby Dick">Project Moby Dick</a></li>

<li><a href="Project_Mogul" title="Project Mogul">Project Mogul</a></li>

<li><a href="Venona_project" title="Venona project">Venona project</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="7th_Air_Escadrille" title="7th Air Escadrille">7th Air Escadrille</a></li>

<li><a href="Active_Measures_Working_Group" title="Active Measures Working Group">Active Measures Working Group</a></li>

<li><a href="Bomber_gap" title="Bomber gap">Bomber gap</a></li>

<li><a href="CIA_activities_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="CIA activities in the Soviet Union">CIA activities in the Soviet Union</a></li>

<li><a href="Cold_War_tensions_and_the_polio_vaccine" title="Cold War tensions and the polio vaccine">Cold War tensions and the polio vaccine</a></li>

<li><a href="Missile_gap" title="Missile gap">Missile gap</a></li>

<li><a href="Nitrophenyl_pentadienal" title="Nitrophenyl pentadienal">Nitrophenyl pentadienal</a></li>

<li><a href="Plan_Totality" title="Plan Totality">Plan Totality</a></li>

<li><a href="Red_Scare" title="Red Scare">Red Scare</a></li>

<li><a href="Seven_Days_to_the_River_Rhine" title="Seven Days to the River Rhine">Seven Days to the River Rhine</a></li>

<li><a href="Sheldon_names" title="Sheldon names">Sheldon names</a></li>

<li><a href="Smolensk_Archive" title="Smolensk Archive">Smolensk Archive</a></li>

<li><a href="The_Moscow_rules" title="The Moscow rules">The Moscow rules</a></li>

<li><a href="United_States_aerial_reconnaissance_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="United States aerial reconnaissance of the Soviet Union">United States aerial reconnaissance of the Soviet Union</a></li>

<li><a href="United_States_war_plans_(1945%E2%80%931950)" title="United States war plans (1945–1950)">United States war plans (1945–1950)</a></li>

<li><a href="U.S._Army_Field_Manual_30-31B" title="U.S. Army Field Manual 30-31B">U.S. Army Field Manual 30-31B</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Incidents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">World War II</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Gorin_v._United_States" title="Gorin v. United States">Gorin v. United States</a></li>

<li><a href="Ni%C5%A1_incident" title="Niš incident">Niš incident</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Cold War</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="1958_C-130_shootdown_incident" title="1958 C-130 shootdown incident">1958 C-130 shootdown incident</a></li>

<li><a href="1960_RB-47_shootdown_incident" title="1960 RB-47 shootdown incident">1960 RB-47 shootdown incident</a></li>

<li><a href="1960_U-2_incident" title="1960 U-2 incident">1960 U-2 incident</a></li>

<li><a href="1961_F-84_Thunderstreak_incident" title="1961 F-84 Thunderstreak incident">1961 F-84 Thunderstreak incident</a></li>

<li><a href="1964_T-39_shootdown_incident" title="1964 T-39 shootdown incident">1964 T-39 shootdown incident</a></li>

<li><a href="1980_Summer_Olympics_boycott" title="1980 Summer Olympics boycott">1980 Summer Olympics boycott</a></li>

<li><a href="1983_Soviet_nuclear_false_alarm_incident" title="1983 Soviet nuclear false alarm incident">1983 Soviet nuclear false alarm incident</a></li>

<li><a href="1984_Summer_Olympics_boycott" title="1984 Summer Olympics boycott">1984 Summer Olympics boycott</a></li>

<li><a href="1986_Black_Sea_incident" title="1986 Black Sea incident">1986 Black Sea incident</a></li>

<li><a href="1988_Black_Sea_bumping_incident" title="1988 Black Sea bumping incident">1988 Black Sea bumping incident</a></li>

<li><a href="Able_Archer_83" title="Able Archer 83">Able Archer 83</a>

<ul><li><a href="Autumn_Forge_83" title="Autumn Forge 83">Autumn Forge 83</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Aeroflot_Flight_244" title="Aeroflot Flight 244">Aeroflot Flight 244</a></li>

<li><a href="Air-to-air_combat_losses_between_the_Soviet_Union_and_the_United_States" title="Air-to-air combat losses between the Soviet Union and the United States">Air-to-air combat losses between the Soviet Union and the United States</a></li>

<li><a href="Arrest_of_Mark_Kaminsky_and_Harvey_Bennett" title="Arrest of Mark Kaminsky and Harvey Bennett">Arrest of Mark Kaminsky and Harvey Bennett</a></li>

<li><a href="Arthur_D._Nicholson" title="Arthur D. Nicholson">Arthur D. Nicholson</a></li>

<li><a href="Berlin_Blockade" title="Berlin Blockade">Berlin Blockade</a></li>

<li><a href="Berlin_Crisis_of_1958%E2%80%931959" title="Berlin Crisis of 1958–1959">Berlin Crisis of 1958–1959</a></li>

<li><a href="Berlin_Crisis_of_1961" title="Berlin Crisis of 1961">Berlin Crisis of 1961</a></li>

<li><a href="Capture_of_the_Tuapse" title="Capture of the Tuapse">Capture of the Tuapse</a></li>

<li><a href="Cuban_Missile_Crisis" title="Cuban Missile Crisis">Cuban Missile Crisis</a>

<ul><li><a href="Crateology" title="Crateology">Crateology</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Dymshits%E2%80%93Kuznetsov_hijacking_affair" title="Dymshits–Kuznetsov hijacking affair">Dymshits–Kuznetsov hijacking affair</a></li>

<li><a href="Feodor_Fedorenko" title="Feodor Fedorenko">Feodor Fedorenko</a></li>

<li><a href="Gambell_incident" title="Gambell incident">Gambell incident</a></li>

<li><a href="Hollow_Nickel_Case" title="Hollow Nickel Case">Hollow Nickel Case</a></li>

<li><a href="Iran_crisis_of_1946" title="Iran crisis of 1946">Iran crisis of 1946</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Anthony_Walker" title="John Anthony Walker">John Anthony Walker</a></li>

<li><a href="Karl_Linnas" title="Karl Linnas">Karl Linnas</a></li>

<li><a href="Kasenkina_Case" title="Kasenkina Case">Kasenkina Case</a></li>

<li><a href="Korean_Air_Lines_Flight_007" title="Korean Air Lines Flight 007">Korean Air Lines Flight 007</a></li>

<li><a href="Martin_and_Mitchell_defection" title="Martin and Mitchell defection">Martin and Mitchell defection</a></li>

<li><a href="Moscow_Signal" title="Moscow Signal">Moscow Signal</a></li>

<li><a href="Pan_Am_Flight_708" title="Pan Am Flight 708">Pan Am Flight 708</a></li>

<li><a href="Seaboard_World_Airlines_Flight_253A" title="Seaboard World Airlines Flight 253A">Seaboard World Airlines Flight 253A</a></li>

<li><a href="Shostakovich_v._Twentieth_Century-Fox_Film_Corp." title="Shostakovich v. Twentieth Century-Fox Film Corp.">Shostakovich v. Twentieth Century-Fox Film Corp.</a></li>

<li><a href="Siberian_Seven" title="Siberian Seven">Siberian Seven</a></li>

<li><a href="Soviet_submarine_K-129_(1960)" title="Soviet submarine K-129 (1960)">Soviet submarine K-129</a></li>

<li><a href="Soviet_submarine_K-219" title="Soviet submarine K-219">Soviet submarine K-219</a></li>

<li><a href="Sputnik_crisis" title="Sputnik crisis">Sputnik crisis</a></li>

<li><a href="SS_Metallurg_Anosov" title="SS Metallurg Anosov">SS Metallurg Anosov</a></li>

<li><a href="Transfermium_Wars" title="Transfermium Wars">Transfermium Wars</a></li>

<li><a href="Turkish_Straits_crisis" title="Turkish Straits crisis">Turkish Straits crisis</a></li>

<li><a href="United_States_grain_embargo_against_the_Soviet_Union" title="United States grain embargo against the Soviet Union">United States grain embargo against the Soviet Union</a></li>

<li><a href="Urengoy%E2%80%93Pomary%E2%80%93Uzhhorod_pipeline" title="Urengoy–Pomary–Uzhhorod pipeline">Urengoy–Pomary–Uzhhorod pipeline</a></li>

<li><a href="We_begin_bombing_in_five_minutes" title="We begin bombing in five minutes">We begin bombing in five minutes</a></li>

<li><a href="Yellow_rain" title="Yellow rain">Yellow rain</a></li>

<li><a href="Yeniseysk-15" title="Yeniseysk-15">Yeniseysk-15</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Military relations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Russian<br>Revolution</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="American_Expeditionary_Force%2C_North_Russia" title="American Expeditionary Force, North Russia">American Expeditionary Force, North Russia</a></li>

<li><a href="American_Expeditionary_Force%2C_Siberia" title="American Expeditionary Force, Siberia">American Expeditionary Force, Siberia</a></li>

<li><a href="North_Russia_intervention" title="North Russia intervention">North Russia intervention</a></li>

<li><a href="Siberian_intervention" title="Siberian intervention">Siberian intervention</a></li>

<li><a href="United_States_and_the_Russian_Revolution" title="United States and the Russian Revolution">United States and the Russian Revolution</a></li>

<li><a href="White_movement" title="White movement">White movement</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">World War II</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Allied_Control_Council" title="Allied Control Council">Allied Control Council</a></li>

<li><a href="Allied_Kommandatura" title="Allied Kommandatura">Allied Kommandatura</a></li>

<li><a href="Allied_technological_cooperation_during_World_War_II" title="Allied technological cooperation during World War II">Allied technological cooperation during World War II</a></li>

<li><a href="ALSIB" title="ALSIB">ALSIB</a></li>

<li><a href="Arctic_convoys_of_World_War_II" title="Arctic convoys of World War II">Arctic convoys of World War II</a></li>

<li><a href="Belorussia-class_cargo_ship" title="Belorussia-class cargo ship">Belorussia-class cargo ship</a></li>

<li><a href="Berlin_Victory_Parade_of_1945" title="Berlin Victory Parade of 1945">Berlin Victory Parade of 1945</a></li>

<li><a href="Four_Policemen" title="Four Policemen">Four Policemen</a></li>

<li><a href="Line_of_Contact" title="Line of Contact">Line of Contact</a></li>

<li><a href="Northwest_Staging_Route" title="Northwest Staging Route">Northwest Staging Route</a></li>

<li><a href="Pacific_Route" title="Pacific Route">Pacific Route</a></li>

<li><a href="Persian_Corridor" title="Persian Corridor">Persian Corridor</a></li>

<li><a href="Persian_Gulf_Command" title="Persian Gulf Command">Persian Gulf Command</a></li>

<li><a href="SS_Dakotan" title="SS Dakotan">SS Dakotan</a></li>

<li><a href="SS_Iowan" title="SS Iowan">SS Iowan</a></li>

<li><a href="Tripartite_Naval_Commission" title="Tripartite Naval Commission">Tripartite Naval Commission</a></li>

<li><a href="USS_West_Bridge" title="USS West Bridge">USS West Bridge</a></li>

<li><a href="Warsaw_airlift" title="Warsaw airlift">Warsaw airlift</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Cold War</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Eisenhower_Doctrine" title="Eisenhower Doctrine">Eisenhower Doctrine</a></li>

<li><a href="Four_Power_Naval_Commission" title="Four Power Naval Commission">Four Power Naval Commission</a></li>

<li><a href="Four-Power_Authorities" title="Four-Power Authorities">Four-Power Authorities</a></li>

<li><a href="Military_liaison_missions" title="Military liaison missions">Military liaison missions</a></li>

<li><a href="Reagan_Doctrine" title="Reagan Doctrine">Reagan Doctrine</a></li>

<li><a href="Truman_Doctrine" title="Truman Doctrine">Truman Doctrine</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Armaments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="American_Holland-class_submarine" title="American Holland-class submarine">AG submarines</a></li>

<li><a href="Bell_P-63_Kingcobra" title="Bell P-63 Kingcobra">Bell P-63 Kingcobra</a></li>

<li><a href="Comparison_of_the_AK-47_and_M16" title="Comparison of the AK-47 and M16">Comparison of the AK-47 and M16</a></li>

<li><a href="SS_Indigirka" title="SS Indigirka">SS Indigirka</a></li>

<li><a href="Tupolev_Tu-4" title="Tupolev Tu-4">Tupolev Tu-4</a></li>

<li><a href="Tupolev_Tu-70" title="Tupolev Tu-70">Tupolev Tu-70</a></li>

<li><a href="Tupolev_Tu-80" title="Tupolev Tu-80">Tupolev Tu-80</a></li>

<li><a href="USCGC_Southwind" title="USCGC Southwind">USCGC Southwind</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Soviet Union</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Amtorg_Trading_Corporation" title="Amtorg Trading Corporation">Amtorg Trading Corporation</a>

<ul><li><a href="Ansonia_Clock_Company" title="Ansonia Clock Company">Ansonia Clock Company</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Foundation_for_Social_Inventions" title="Foundation for Social Inventions">Foundation for Social Inventions</a>

<ul><li><a href="Gennady_Alferenko" title="Gennady Alferenko">Gennady Alferenko</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Institute_for_US_and_Canadian_Studies" title="Institute for US and Canadian Studies">Institute for US and Canadian Studies</a></li>

<li><a href="Russian_Soviet_Government_Bureau" title="Russian Soviet Government Bureau">Russian Soviet Government Bureau</a></li>

<li><a href="Soviet_Government_Purchasing_Commission_in_the_U.S." title="Soviet Government Purchasing Commission in the U.S.">Soviet Government Purchasing Commission in the U.S.</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">United States</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="American_Committee_for_the_Liberation_of_the_Peoples_of_Russia" title="American Committee for the Liberation of the Peoples of Russia">American Committee for the Liberation of the Peoples of Russia</a></li>

<li><a href="Ark_Project" title="Ark Project">Ark Project</a></li>

<li><a href="American_Peace_Mobilization" title="American Peace Mobilization">American Peace Mobilization</a></li>

<li><a href="American_Relief_Administration" title="American Relief Administration">American Relief Administration</a></li>

<li><a href="American_Russian_Institute" title="American Russian Institute">American Russian Institute</a></li>

<li><a href="American%E2%80%93Soviet_friendship_movement" title="American–Soviet friendship movement">American–Soviet friendship movement</a></li>

<li><a href="American-Soviet_Peace_Walks" title="American-Soviet Peace Walks">American-Soviet Peace Walks</a></li>

<li><a href="Center_for_Citizen_Initiatives" title="Center for Citizen Initiatives">Center for Citizen Initiatives</a></li>

<li><a href="Communist_Party_USA" title="Communist Party USA">Communist Party USA</a></li>

<li><a href="Dewey_Commission" title="Dewey Commission">Dewey Commission</a></li>

<li><a href="Freedom_Sunday_for_Soviet_Jews" title="Freedom Sunday for Soviet Jews">Freedom Sunday for Soviet Jews</a></li>

<li><a href="Friends_of_Soviet_Russia" title="Friends of Soviet Russia">Friends of Soviet Russia</a></li>

<li><a href="Friendship_Flight_'89" title="Friendship Flight '89">Friendship Flight '89</a></li>

<li><a href="Friendship_Flight_(Alaska_Airlines)" title="Friendship Flight (Alaska Airlines)">Friendship Flight (Alaska Airlines)</a></li>

<li><a href="Fund_for_Armenian_Relief" title="Fund for Armenian Relief">Fund for Armenian Relief</a></li>

<li><a href="Kennan_Institute" title="Kennan Institute">Kennan Institute</a></li>

<li><a href="Kersten_Committee" title="Kersten Committee">Kersten Committee</a></li>

<li><a href="National_Committee_for_a_Free_Europe" title="National Committee for a Free Europe">National Committee for a Free Europe</a></li>

<li><a href="National_Council_of_American%E2%80%93Soviet_Friendship" title="National Council of American–Soviet Friendship">National Council of American–Soviet Friendship</a></li>

<li><a href="Organization_for_Jewish_Colonization_in_Russia" title="Organization for Jewish Colonization in Russia">Organization for Jewish Colonization in Russia</a></li>

<li><a href="Russian-American_Industrial_Corporation" title="Russian-American Industrial Corporation">Russian-American Industrial Corporation</a></li>

<li><a href="Russian_War_Relief" title="Russian War Relief">Russian War Relief</a></li>

<li><a href="Society_for_Technical_Aid_to_Soviet_Russia" title="Society for Technical Aid to Soviet Russia">Society for Technical Aid to Soviet Russia</a></li>

<li><a href="Student_Struggle_for_Soviet_Jewry" title="Student Struggle for Soviet Jewry">Student Struggle for Soviet Jewry</a></li>

<li><a href="U.S._Commission_on_the_Ukraine_Famine" title="U.S. Commission on the Ukraine Famine">U.S. Commission on the Ukraine Famine</a></li>

<li><a href="U.S._Peace_Council" title="U.S. Peace Council">U.S. Peace Council</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Baltic_Freedom_Day" title="Baltic Freedom Day">Baltic Freedom Day</a></li>

<li><a href="Captive_Nations" title="Captive Nations">Captive Nations</a>

<ul><li><a href="Captive_Nations_Week" title="Captive Nations Week">Captive Nations Week</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Georgi_Bolshakov" title="Georgi Bolshakov">Georgi Bolshakov</a></li>

<li><a href="Little_Joe_(electric_locomotive)" title="Little Joe (electric locomotive)">Little Joe</a></li>

<li><a href="New_world_order_(politics)" title="New world order (politics)">New world order (politics)</a></li>

<li><a href="Refusenik" title="Refusenik">Refusenik</a></li>

<li><a href="Roswell_Garst" title="Roswell Garst">Roswell Garst</a></li>

<li><a href="Samantha_Smith" title="Samantha Smith">Samantha Smith</a></li>

<li><a href="Self-propelled_barge_T-36" title="Self-propelled barge T-36">Self-propelled barge T-36</a></li>

<li><a href="Sisson_Documents" title="Sisson Documents">Sisson Documents</a></li>

<li><a href="Sovereignty_of_Puerto_Rico_during_the_Cold_War" title="Sovereignty of Puerto Rico during the Cold War">Sovereignty of Puerto Rico during the Cold War</a></li>

<li><a href="Suzanne_Massie" title="Suzanne Massie">Suzanne Massie</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><b><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span> Category:Soviet Union–United States relations</b></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

This article is issued from <a class="external text" title="Last edited on 2025-07-19" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/?title=Soviet_space_program&oldid=1301330657">Wikipedia</a>. The text is available under <a class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

</div>

</div></div>

</div>

</main>

</div>

</body></html>